A Systematic Review of the Space Industry’s Environmental Burden within Earth System Limits

Abstract

The environmental impacts of the modern space industry have expanded rapidly with the rise of commercial launch services, satellite mega constellations, and reusable spacecraft. Despite growing global interest, these impacts remain poorly understood and largely unregulated. This paper systematically reviews the environmental footprint of contemporary space activities, synthesizing evidence across five domains: rocket emissions, orbital debris, atmospheric reentry, light pollution, and material resource use. Using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) methodology, over 80 peer-reviewed studies and international agency reports were analyzed. Findings reveal significant, yet underregulated, impacts on atmospheric chemistry, orbital sustainability, and terrestrial resources. While mitigation efforts, such as green propellants, debris removal technologies, and sustainability rating systems, are emerging, their adoption remains fragmented and largely voluntary. The review identifies persistent research and policy gaps, including the lack of transparent life cycle assessments and robust global standards. It further highlights the accelerating pace of space commercialization and the increasing involvement of private actors, which intensify governance challenges and complicate accountability mechanisms across jurisdictions. Additionally, disparities in technological capacity between nations raise concerns about unequal environmental burdens and access to orbital resources. It calls for the integration of space activities into comprehensive environmental governance frameworks and the advancement of interdisciplinary, systemic solutions to ensure the long-term sustainability of both orbital and terrestrial environments.