The Evil Couple: Illegal Mining in Water Bodies and Climate Change: A Case Study of Ghana

Authors

  • Victor Adjei Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
  • Elijah Foh Amaning Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
  • Isaac Tettey Adjokatse Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.30564/jasr.v5i3.4778

Abstract

For the past few decades, illegal mining sector in Ghana popularly known as galamsey has received public outcry due to its negative impacts on quantity and quality of water resources. The purpose of this study was to explore the combined effects of mining in water bodies and climate change on water resources in Ghana. The methodology explored in the study was quantitative approach. The quality and quantity of most water bodies in Ghana had been compromised due to extraction of minerals, and such contaminants (heavy metals) include mercury, zinc, cyanide, sulphur etc. This phenomenon had made most water resources (e.g. River Fena, River Pra) unwholesome or inhabitable. Apart from this, climate change had also dried up some streams and rivers such as Anyinam, Offin and Goa. These unfortunate events had made water resources precarious which could spike water scarcity in the country in the near future. This paper, therefore, commends that stringent measures are to be taken to protect water bodies in the country as a menace of climate will continue to get worse.

Keywords:

Climate change; Galamsey (illegal mining); Adaptation; Mitigation

References

[1] National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 2019. Global Climate Report, Annual 2018. US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI). https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/global/201813

[2] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2021. Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Pirani, A., Connors, S.L., Péan, C.,S. Berger, N., Caud, Y., Chen, Y., Goldfarb, L., Gomis, M.I., Huang, M., Leitzell,K., Lonnoy, E., Matthews, J..R., Maycock, T.K. Waterfield, T., Yelekçi, O., Yu, R. & Zhou. B. The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. In Press. https://www.environmentalgraphiti.org

[3] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2011. IPCC Introduces New ‘Climate Change’ Definition. IPCC SREX Summary for Policymakers page 2. http://www.thegwpf.org/ipcc-introducesnew-climate-change-definition/

[4] International Water Association, 2004. The Bonn Charter for Safe Drinking Water, Bonn. Retrieve from https://www.wateraction.hub.org

[5] Global Water partnership, 2000. Integrated Water Resources Management, Global Water Partnership, Stockholm. Retrieve from https://cap.net.org

[6] Grillakis, M.G., 2019. Increase in severe and extreme soil moisture droughts for Europe under climate change. Science of The Total Environment. 660, 1245-1255.

[7] Padgham, J., Jabbour, J., Dietrich, K., 2015. Managing change and building resilience: A Multi-stressor analysis of urban and peri-urban agriculture in Africa and Asia. Urban Climate. 12, 183-204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2015.04.003

[8] Allison I., N.L., Bindoff, R.A., Bindschadler, P.M., et al., 2009. The Copenhagen Diagnosis. Updating the World on the Latest Climate Science. The University of New South Wales Climate Change Research Centre (CCRC), Sydney, Australia. pp. 60.

[9] Hartmann, D.L., Klein Tank, A.M.G., Rusticucci, M., et al., 2013. Observations: Atmosphere and surface.T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex & P. M. Midgley (Eds.), Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press.

[10] World Bank, 2009. World Development Report 2010. Development and Climate Change. World Bank Washington.

[11] Parry, M.N., Arnell, P., Berry, D., et al., 2009. Assessing the Costs of Adaptation to Climate Change: A review of the UNFCCC and Other Recent Estimates. London: International Institute for Environment and Development and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change, Imperial College. pp. 111.

[12] World Bank, 2010. Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change: Synthesis Report. Washington DC. pp. 100. https://worldbank.org

[13] Adjei, V., Kyerematen, R., 2018. Impacts of Changing Climate on Maize Production in the Transitional Zone of Ghana. American Journal of Climate Change. 7, 463-476. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/ajcc.2018.73028

[14] Haensler, A., Saeed, F., Jacob, D., 2013. Assessing the robustness of projected precipitation changes over central Africa on the basis of a multitude of global and regional climate projections. Climatic Change. 121(2), 349-363. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-013-0863-8

[15] Baidu, M., Amekudzi, L.K., Aryee, J.N.A., et al., 2017. Assessment of Long-Term Spatio-Temporal Rainfall Variability over Ghana Using Wavelet Analysis. (Retrieved on 20th June, 2022). https://www.mdpi.com/journal/climate

[16] Ghana Statistical Service, 2021. 2021 Population and Housing Census Publications. General Report Volume 3C.

[17] Amekudzi, L.K., Yamba, E.I., Preko, K., et al., 2015. Variabilities in rainfall onset, cessation and length of rainy season for the various Agro-Ecological Zones of Ghana. Climate. 3, 416-434.

[18] Barclays and Met Office, 2009. Storm Shelter: managing climate risks in Africa. Crown Copyright. UK Met Office. Exeter. UK.

[19] USDA., 2008. The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture, Land Resources, Water Resources, and Biodiversity in the United States. U.S. Climate Change Science Program Synthesis and Assessment Product 4.3. http://www.climatescience.gov

[20] Milly, P.C.D., Dunne, K.A., Vecchia, A.V., 2005. Global pattern of trends in streamflow and water availability in a changing climate. Nature. 438, 347- 350.

[21] Christensen, N., Lettenmaier, D.P., 2007. A multimodel ensemble approach to assessment of climate change impacts on the hydrology and water resources of the Colorado River basin. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 11, 1417-1434.

[22] Food and Agriculture Organisation, 2011. Climate Change, Water and Food Security Rome. FAO water reports. Retrieve from https://www.statsghana.gov.gh

[23] Adams, R.M., Peck, D.E., 2018. Effects of Climate Change on Water Resources. The magazine of food, farm, and resource issues. Retrieve from https://www.choicesmagazine.org

[24] Morrison, J., Morikawa, M., Murphy, M., et al., 2009. Water Scarcity & Climate Change: Growing Risks for Businesses & Investors. https://www.pacinst.org

[25] Gleick, P., 2007. The World’s Water 2006-2007: A Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources. Retrieve from https://link.springer.com

[26] National Center for Atmospheric Research, 2005. Drought’s Growing Reach: NCAR Study Points to Global Warming as Key Factor. The University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. http://www.ucar.edu/news/releases/2005/drought_research.shtml

[27] Barnett, T.P., Pierce, D.W., 2008. When will Lake Mead go dry? Water Resources Research, 44, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego. http://scrippsnews.ucsd.edu/Releases/?releaseID=876

[28] Koutroulis, A.G., Papadimitriou, L.V., Grillakis, M.G., et al., 2018. Freshwater vulnerability under high end climate change. A pan-European assessment. Science of the Total Environment. 613-614, 271-286.

[29] Adiku, S., Mawunya, F., Jones, J., et al., 2007. Can ENSO help in agricultural decision-making in Ghana? In Climate Prediction and Agriculture. Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany. pp. 205-212.

[30] Sultan, B., Janicot, S., 2000. Abrupt shift of the ITCZ over West Africa and intra-seasonal variability. Geophysical Research Letters. 27, 3353-3356.

[31] Mawunya, F., Adiku, S., Laryea, K., et al., 2011. Characterisation of seasonal rainfall for cropping schedules. West African Journal of Applied Ecology. 19, 108-118.

[32] Paeth, H., Hense, A., 2004. SST versus climate change signals in West African rainfall: 20th-century variations and future projections. Climatic Change.65, 179-208.

[33] Owusu, K., Waylen, P., Qiu, Y., 2008. Changing rainfall inputs in the Volta basin: Implications for water sharing in Ghana. GeoJournal. 71, 201-210.

[34] Yorke, C., Omotosho, J., 2010. Rainfall variability in Ghana during 1961-2005. Journal of the Ghana Science Association. 12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/jgsa.v12i1.56813

[35] Lee, T., McPhaden, M.J., 2000. Increasing intensity of El Niño in the central-equatorial Pacific. Geophysical Research Letters. 37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL044007

[36] Zhang, Q., Holmgren, K., Sundqvist, H., 2015. Decadal rainfall dipole oscillation over southern Africa modulated by variation of austral summer landsea contrast along the East Coast of Africa. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 72, 1827-1836.

[37] Janicot, S., Harzallah, A., Fontaine, B., et al., 1998. West African monsoon dynamics and eastern equatorial Atlantic and Pacific SST anomalies (1970-1988). Journal of Climate. 11, 1874-1882.

[38] Rowell, D.P., 2001. Teleconnections between the tropical Pacific and the Sahel. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological. 127, 1683-1706.

[39] Matthews, A.J., 2004. Intra-seasonal variability over tropical Africa during northern summer. Journal of Climate. 17, 2427-2440.

[40] Ekwezuo, C.S., Nnamchi, H.C., Phil-Eze, P.O., 2017. Projected Changes in Mean Annual Rainfall Pattern over West Africa during the Twenty First Century. Pakistan Journal of Meteorology. www.pmd.gov.pk (Assessed on 12th June, 2014).

[41] Cooper, P.J.M., Dimes, J., Rao, K.P.C., et al., 2008. Coping better with current climatic variability in the rain-fed farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa: An essential first step in adapting to future climate change? Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 126, 24-35.

[42] Sultan, B., Janicot, S., 2003. The West African monsoon dynamics. Part II: The “preonset” and “onset” of the summer monsoon. Journal of Climate. 16, 3407-3427.

[43] IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007, the Fourth IPCC Assessment Report. Cambridge University Press. Retrieve from http://www.ipcc.ch

[44] Asante, F.A., Amuakwa-Mensah, F., 2015. Climate Change and Variability in Ghana: Stocktaking. Climate journal. University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana. Retrieved on 24th February, 2020 from https://www.mdpi.com/journal/climate

[45] Owusu, K., Waylen, P., Qiu, Y., 2008. Changing rainfall inputs in the Volta basin: implications for water sharing in Ghana. GeoJournal. 71, 201-210.

[46] Adjei, V., Kwantwi, B.L., 2019. Maize and Cashew Farming in the Face of Climate Change Variability in the Transitional Zone of Ghana: A Case Study of Nkoranza South Municipality. American Journal of Environmental Sciences, USA. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3844/ajessp

[47] Adjei, V., Mawusi, A.A., 2020. Cashew Production as a Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Tool for Agriculture. Advances in Earth and Environmental Science. https://www.unisciencepub.com

[48] Dietz, T., Millar, D., Dittoh, S., et al., 2004. Climate and Livelihood Change in North East Ghana. A.J. Dietz, R. Ruben & A. Verhagen, (eds.), The Impact of Climate Change on Drylands, with a Focus on West Africa. Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Environment and Policy Series. 39, 149- 172.

[49] Adiku, S.G.K., Yangyuo, M., MacCarthy, D.S., 2013. Assessing the Potential Impact of Climate Change on Maize Production in Two Farming Zones of Ghana Using the CERES-Maize Model. Ghana Journal policy 5 Climate Change in Ghana: Impacts on Agriculture and the Policy Implications. Retrieved on 15th December, 2015 from https://www.ieagh.org

[50] Codjoe, S.N.A., Nabie, V.A., 2014. Climate Change and Cerebrospinal Meningitis in the Ghana Belt. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. pp. 6923-6939.

[51] Akudugu, M.A., Dittoh, S., Mahama, E.S., 2012. The implications of climate change on food security and rural livelihoods: experiences from Northern Ghana. Journal of Environment & Earth Science. 2(3), 21- 29.

[52] GFDRR., 2011. Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile. https://www.worldbank.org (Assessed on 10th February, 2022).

[53] Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., Owusu, P.A., Jayaweera, H.M.P.C., 2015. Flood risk management in Ghana: A case study in Accra. Pelagia Research Library Advances in Applied Science Research. pp. 196-206.

[54] Cameron, C., 2011. Climate change finance and aid effectiveness: Ghana Case Study. OECD. http://www.oecd.org/dac/environmentdevelopment/48458430.pdf

[55] Akon-Yamga, G., Boadu, P., Obiri, B.D., et al., 2011. Agricultural Innovations for Climate Change Adaptation and Food Security in Africa: The Cases of Ghana and The Gambia. African Technology Policy Studies Network. http://www.atpsnet.org/Files/rps11.pdf

[56] Ghana Water Resources Commission, 2012. WRC. Pra River Basin - Integrated Water Resources Management Plan. Retrieve from http://www.washghana.net

[57] USDA, 2008. The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture, Land Resources, Water Resources, and Biodiversity in the United States. U.S. Climate Change Science Program Synthesis and Assessment Product 4.3. http://www.climatescience.gov

[58] Antwi B.B., 2014. Galamsey As A Livelihood Approach In Ghana: From a Poverty Reduction Strategy to a Money-Spinning Business, Centre for Development and the Environment, University of Oslo.

[59] Bekoe, E.O., Logah, F.Y., 2013. The Impact of Droughts and Climate Change on Electricity Generation in Ghana. Environmental Sciences. 1(1), 13–24.

[60] Awotwi, A., Anornu, G.K., Quaye-Ballard, J., et al., 2017. Analysis of Climate and Anthropogenic Impacts on Runoff in the Lower Pra River Basin of Ghana. Heliyon. 3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2017.e00477

[61] Government of Ghana, 2007. Ghana National Water policy.

[62] Fatawu, N.A., Allan, A., 2014. Managing the impacts of mining on Ghana’s water resources from a legal perspective. Journal of Energy and Natural Resource. 156-165. https://www.smenticscholar.org

[63] Obuobie, E., Barry, B., 2012. Ghana. Groundwater Availability and Use in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of 15 Countries; Pavelic, P., Giordano, M., Keraita, B., Ramesh, V., Rao, T., Eds. International Water Management Institute: Colombo, Sri Lanka.

[64] UPGro-African Groundwater, Ghana, 2020. UPGro - African Groundwater 2020.

[65] Gyampoh, A.B., Idinoba, M., Amisah, S., 2014. Water Scarcity under a Changing Climate in Ghana: Options for livelihoods adaptation. Society for International Development. 1011-6370/08. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5219960

[66] Minerals Commission, 2015. Artisanal and Smallscale Mining (ASM) framework. https://www.mofep.gov.gh/sites/default/files/reports/economic/ASM.FRAMEWORK

[67] Alhassan, I.A., 2014. Galamsey and the Making of a Deep State in Ghana: Implications for National Security and Development. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences. 2224-5766.

[68] Baah-Ennumh, T.Y., 2010. Sustaining livelihoods in artisanal small-scale mining communities in the Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipality (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Kwame University of Science and Technology.

[69] Hilson, G., 2006. Abatement of mercury pollution in the small-scale gold mining industry: Restructuring the policy and research agendas. Science of the Total Environment. 362(1), 1-14.

[70] Amankwah, E., 2013. Impact of illegal mining on water resources for domestic and irrigation purposes. ARPN Journal of Earth Sciences. 2(3), 117-121.

[71] Nartey, V.K., Klake, R.K., Hayford, E.K., et al., 2011. Assessment of mercury pollution in rivers and streams around artisanal gold mining areas of the Birim North District of Ghana. Journal of Environmental Protection. 2(9), 1227-1239.

[72] Clifford, M.J., 2017. Assessing releases of mercury from small-scale gold mining sites in Ghana. Extractive Industries and Society. 4(3), 497-505.

[73] Yeleliere, E., Cobbina, S.J., Duwiejuah, A.B., 2018. Review of Ghana’s Water Resources: The Quality and Management with Particular Focus on Freshwater Resources. Applied Water Science. 8(3), 93. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0736-4

[74] Adombire, M., Adjewodah, P., Abrahams, R., 2013. Business as Usual (BAU) Scenario Information and Analysis Covering the Pra and Kakum River Basins. Nature Conservation Research Centre. Retrieve from http://www.forest.treds.org

[75] Gampson, E.K., Nartey, V.K., Golow, A.A., et al., 2014. Hydrochemical. Study of Water Collected at a Section of the Lower Volta River (Akuse to Sogakope Area), Ghana. Applied Water Science. 4, 129- 143.

[76] Hilson, G., 2002. Harvesting mineral riches: 1000 years of gold mining in Ghana. Resource Policy. 28, 13-26. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com

[77] Duncan, A.E., 2020. The Dangerous Couple: Illegal Mining and Water Pollution—A Case Study in Fena River in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/2378560

[78] Aryee, B.N.A., Ntibery, B.K., Atorkui, E., 2003. Trends in the small-scale mining of precious minerals in Ghana: a perspective on its environmental impact. Journal of Cleaner Production. 11(2), 131-140.

[79] Kyeremeh, K., 2017. Galamsey Menace: The failure of mining governance system. https://ghanatalksbusiness.com/2017/03/galamsey-menace-failure-mining-governance-system

[80] Clifford, M.J., 2017. Assessing releases of mercury from small-scale gold mining sites in Ghana. Extractive Industries and Society. 4(3), 497-505.

[81] Duncan, A.E., de Vries, N., Nyarko, K.B., 2018. Assessment of Heavy Metal Pollution in the Main Pra River and Its Tributaries in the Pra Basin of Ghana. Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring & Management. 10, 264-271. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2018.06.003

[82] Hilson, G., 2001. A contextual review of the Ghanaian small-scale mining industry. Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development. 76, 1-29.

[83] Nartey, V.K., Klake, R.K., Hayford, E.K., et al., 2011. Assessment of mercury pollution in rivers and streams around artisanal gold mining areas of the Birim North District of Ghana. Journal of Environmental Protection. 2(9), 1227-1239.

[84] Ahoulé, D.G., Lalanne, F., Mendret, J., et al., 2015. Arsenic in African Waters: A Review. Water Air & Soil Pollution. 226(302). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-015-2558-4

[85] Donkor, A.K., Bonzongo, J.C.J., Nartey, V.K., et al., 2015. Heavy Metals in Sediments of the Gold Mining Impacted Pra River Basin, Ghana,West Africa. Soil & Sediment Contamination. 14, 479-503. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15320380500263675

[86] Carr, G.M., Neary, J.P., 2008. Water Quality for Ecosystem and Human Health, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. https://www.scrip.org

[87] United Nations Agency International Development. https://www.undp.org

Downloads

How to Cite

Adjei, V., Amaning, E. F., & Adjokatse, I. T. (2022). The Evil Couple: Illegal Mining in Water Bodies and Climate Change: A Case Study of Ghana. Journal of Atmospheric Science Research, 5(3), 37–51. https://doi.org/10.30564/jasr.v5i3.4778

Issue

Vol. 5 , Iss. 3 (July 2022)

Article Type

Review

License

Copyright © 2022 Author(s)

Creative Commons License

This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.

Crossref
Scopus
Google Scholar
Europe PMC