Low-Energy Recycled Cardboard Powder (RCP) as a Cement Substitute in Concrete: Strength-Based Assessment for Sustainable Construction

Authors

  • Amna Ali Nasser Al Shibani

    Department of Civil Engineering, Middle East College, Muscat 124, Oman
  • Kiran Kumar Poloju

    Department of Civil Engineering, Middle East College, Muscat 124, Oman
  • Bushra Sulaiman Nasser Al Maashari

    Department of Civil Engineering, Middle East College, Muscat 124, Oman
  • Maryam Ahmed Ali Al Ajmi

    Department of Civil Engineering, Middle East College, Muscat 124, Oman
  • Ujadan Muslem Saif Al Sarkhi

    Department of Civil Engineering, Middle East College, Muscat 124, Oman
  • Zmzm Said Sultan Mohammed Al Marhoobi

    Department of Civil Engineering, Middle East College, Muscat 124, Oman

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.30564/jbms.v8i1.13077
Received: 27 January 2026 | Revised: 20 February 2026 | Accepted: 5 March 2026 | Published Online: 23 March 2026

Abstract

Production of cement is one of the major contributors to carbon dioxide emissions in the world, as such, there is motivation to come up with sustainable alternatives to cement production that would cut on the consumption of cement without affecting the structural performance. Out of all the municipal solid waste, cardboard waste is produced in huge amounts and has the potential to be reused in cementitious materials because it contains fibrous cellulose. The paper examines the possibility of recycled cardboard powder (RCP), which is a by-product of a low-energy soaking-drying-grinding procedure, as a partial cement replacement in M25 grade concrete. The concrete mixes with 0%, 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5% of RCP (weight of cement) were tested regarding the workability and mechanical properties such as compressive strength, split tensile strength, and flexural strength after 7 days and 28 days. Findings have shown that the hygroscopic characteristics of cellulose residues make workability decrease gradually as the cellulose content in RCP increases. Nevertheless, the properties of strength increased with moderate levels of replacement, where 1% RCP mix had the highest compressive strength (31–32 MPa), split tensile strength (3.2 MPa) and flexural strength (4.8–5.0 MPa) at 28 days. The addition of RCP in the content to 1.5% led to a decrease in strength caused by cement dilution and the lower dispersion efficiency. The results indicate that recycled cardboard powder (RCP) can safely be used to a high degree of cement substitution at 1% of structural-grade concrete, which provides a perspective of low-energy and sustainable waste-valorization.

Keywords:

Recycled Cardboard Powder (RCP); Low-Energy SCM (Supplementary Cementitious Materials); Oman Vision 2040; Microstructural Densification; Low-Carbon Concrete

References

[1] Andrew, R.M., 2019. Global CO₂ emissions from cement production, 1928–2018. Earth System Science Data. 11(4), 1675–1710. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-11-1675-2019

[2] Scrivener, K.L., John, V.M., Gartner, E.M., 2018. Eco-efficient cements: Potential economically viable solutions for a low-CO₂ cement-based materials industry. Cement and Concrete Research. 114, 2–26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.03.015

[3] Memon, S.A., Shaikh, M.A., Akbar, H., 2011. Utilization of Rice Husk Ash as Viscosity Modifying Agent in Self Compacting Concrete. Construction and Building Materials. 25(2), 1044–1048. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.06.074

[4] Fava, G., Ruello, M.L., Corinaldesi, V., 2011. Paper Mill Sludge Ash as Supplementary Cementitious Material. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering. 23(6). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000218

[5] Liang, C., Le, X., Fang, W., et al., 2022. The Utilization of Recycled Sewage Sludge Ash as a Supplementary Cementitious Material in Mortar: A Review. Sustainability. 14(8), 4432. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084432

[6] ASTM C1585-20, 2020. Standard Test Method for Measurement of Rate of Absorption of Water by Hydraulic-Cement Concretes. Available from: https://standards.iteh.ai/catalog/standards/astm/9f8fba0a-739f-43a3-bd10-71060497a92c/astm-c1585-20 (cited 10 January 2026).

[7] International Energy Agency, 2023. Tracking Clean Energy Progress 2023. Available from: https://www.iea.org/reports/tracking-clean-energy-progress-2023 (cited 13 January 2026).

[8] United Nations Environment Programme, 2023. Beyond Foundations. Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction. Available from: https://globalabc.org/sites/default/files/2024-11/global_status_report_buildings_construction_2023.pdf (cited 13 January 2026).

[9] Leemann, A., Winnefeld, F., 2007. The effect of viscosity modifying agents on mortar and concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites. 29(5), 341–349. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2007.01.004

[10] Liu, J., Lv, C., 2021. Research Progress on Durability of Cellulose Fiber-Reinforced Cement-Based Composites. International Journal of Polymer Science. 2021(1), 1014531. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/1014531

[11] Carrasco-Ahen, C.J., Monzon-Diaz, G.A., 2025. Continuous improvement of concrete properties using recycled cardboard ash: A sustainable alternative to cement. Journal of Applied Research and Technology. 23(4), 350–361. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22201/icat.24486736e.2025.23.4.2809

[12] Wu, H., Shen, A., Zhang, J., 2025. Dynamic mechanical properties of concrete containing cellulose fiber subject to coupling action of multiple impacts and high temperature erosion: Effects and mechanism. Construction and Building Materials. 471, 140714. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.140714

[13] Sandanayake, M., Kraus, R., Haigh, R., et al., 2025. Tex-Crete—Carbon and Cost Assessment of Concrete with Textile and Carboard Fibres—Case Studies Towards Circular Economy. Applied Sciences. 15(13), 6962. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app15136962

[14] Lv, C., Liu, J., 2023. Alkaline degradation of plant fiber reinforcements in geopolymer: A review. Molecules. 28, 1868. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28041868

[15] Turoboś, P., Przybysz, P., 2025. Comparative Study of Cement Composites Reinforced with Cellulose and Lignocellulose Fibers. Fibers. 13(9), 128. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/fib13090128

[16] Poloju, K.K., Al Ajmi, Z., Annadurai, S., et al., 2025. Experimental Study on Acid Resistance of Geopolymer Concrete Incorporating Fly Ash and GGBS: Towards Low-Carbon and Sustainable Construction. Buildings. 15(21), 4012. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15214012

[17] Poloju, K.K., Rahul, C., Anil, V., 2018. Glass fiber reinforced concrete (GFRC)—Strength and stress strain behavior for different grades of concrete. International Journal of Engineering and Technology. 7, 707–712.

[18] Bleyen, N., Van Gompel, V., Eyley, S., et al., 2025. New insights in long-term alkaline degradation mechanism of cellulosic materials in radioactive waste. Cellulose. 32, 4363–4385. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-025-06499-7

[19] Onyejekwe, S., Ghataora, G.S., 2014. Effect of Fiber Inclusions on Flexural Strength of Soils Treated with Nontraditional Additives. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering. 26(8). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000922

[20] Kanagaraj, B., Anand, N., Raj, S., 2023. Techno-socio-economic aspects of Portland cement, Geopolymer, and Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) composite systems: A-State-of-Art-Review. Construction and Building Materials. 398, 132484. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132484

[21] Meko, B., Ighalo, J., 2021. Utilization of waste paper ash as supplementary cementitious material in C-25 concrete: Evaluation of fresh and hardened properties. Cogent Engineering. 8(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2021.1938366

[22] Ekop, I., Etim, I., Ambrose, E., et al., 2024. Bio-Based Cement Concrete Admixtures for Green Recovery in the Construction Industry: A Critical Survey. Materials Circular Economy. 6, 31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42824-024-00113-0

[23] Travincas, R., Pereira, M.F.C., Torres, I., et al., 2023. X-ray microtomography applied to mortars: Review of microstructural visualization and parameterization. Micron. 164, 103375. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micron.2022.103375

[24] Poloju, K.K., 2025. Geopolymer Concrete: Principles, Applications and Testing Methods. Springer: Singapore.

[25] Poloju, K.K., 2022. Advanced Materials and Sustainability in Civil Engineering. Springer: Singapore. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5949-2

[26] Yu, X., Chu, J., Wu, S., et al., 2023. Production of biocement using steel slag. Construction and Building Materials. 383, 131365. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131365

[27] Patrisia, Y., Tran, N.P., Gunasekara, C., et al., 2026. Potential SCMs for low-carbon concrete in Australia: Cradle-to-gate LCA and cost perspectives. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 228, 108823. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2026.108823

[28] Yuvaraj, K., Arunvivek, G.K., Kumar, P., et al., 2026. Influence of paper mill sludge ash on mechanical, microstructural and durability properties of metakaolin based geocrete. Scientific Reports. 16, 6109. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-37581-0

[29] ASTM C1202-22, 2022. Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Rapid Chloride Ion Permeability. Available from: https://www.scribd.com/document/749307604/ASTM-C1202-2022 (cited 10 January 2026).

[30] ACI 211.1-91, 1991. Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/38504100/ACI_211_1_91_Standard_Practice_for_Selecting_Proportions_for_Normal_Heavyweight_and_Mass_Concrete (cited 10 January 2026).

[31] Xing, Z., Li, Z., Wang, P., et al., 2025. Research on the Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of Fly Ash, Slag, and Metakaolin Geopolymers. Coatings. 15(11), 1258. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15111258

[32] United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2025. Greening the Blue: The environmental performance of the UN system. Available from: https://www.unep.org/resources/report/greening-blue-annual-report-2025-environmental-performance-un-system (cited 10 January 2026).

[33] Afshari, A., Górecki, J., 2019. Circular economy in construction sector. Journal of Current Construction Issues. 15–44. Available from: https://open.icm.edu.pl/handle/123456789/17076

[34] Zhou, Y., Pu, S., Han, F., et al., 2025. Effect of ultrafine slag on hydration heat and rheology properties of Portland cement paste. Powder Technology. 405, 117549. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2022.117549

[35] Nguyen, V.T., Phan, T.D., Noh, H.W., et al., 2025. Effects of high-volume limestone powder substitution on hydration and mechanical–microstructural development of low-carbon cement pastes: Simulation and experiment. Construction and Building Materials. 471, 140710. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.140710

[36] ACI Committee 211, 2022. Selecting Proportions for Normal-Density and High-Density Concrete—Guide. Available from: https://storethinghiem.vn/uploads/files/31-ACI%20211.1-22.pdf (cited 8 January 2026).

[37] Yaseen, N., Alcivar-Bastidas, S., Irfan-ul-Hassan, M., et al., 2024. Concrete incorporating supplementary cementitious materials: Temporal evolution of compressive strength and environmental life cycle assessment. Heliyon. 10(3), e25056. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25056

[38] Li, X., Cao, M., 2024. Recent Developments on the Effects of Micro- and Nano-Limestone on the Hydration Process, Products, and Kinetics of Cement. Materials. 17(9), 2133. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17092133

[39] Long, Z., Long, G., Tang, Z., et al., 2024. Analysis of hydration kinetics in high early-strength cementitious system with calcium sulphoaluminate cement and CSH seeds. Construction and Building Materials. 448, 138222. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.138222

[40] Bai, S., Guan, X., Li, H., et al., 2023. Effect of nanocellulose on early hydration and microstructure of cement paste under low and high water-cement ratios. Construction and Building Materials. 409, 133963. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133963

[41] Raghunath, S., Hoque, M., Foster, E.J., 2023. On the Roles of Cellulose Nanocrystals in Fiber Cement: Implications for Rheology, Hydration Kinetics, and Mechanical Properties. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. 11(29), 10727–10736. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c01392

[42] Rathod, R.S.B., Sahoo, P., Gupta, S., 2023. Application of micro-crystalline cellulose as additive in Portland cement-based and alkali activated slag-fly ash mortar: Comparison of compressive strength, hydration and shrinkage. Construction and Building Materials. 385, 131531. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131531

[43] Bilcati, G.K., da Costa, M.d.R.d.M., da Silva Tamura, S.H.L., 2024. Effect of combined fiber–microcrystalline cellulose reinforcement on the rheology and hydration kinetics of cementitious composites. Revista IBRACON de Estruturas e Materiais. 17(6). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/s1983-41952024000600004

[44] Jaglicic, A., Gadt, T., Hofmann, M., 2025. Automatic and simple: How to analyze isothermal calorimetry data of cement hydration quantitatively. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry. 150, 5971–5980. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-025-14162-3

[45] She, A., Li, G., Tan, L., et al., 2023. Comprehensive analysis of early-stage hydration and microstructure evolution in Sufflaminate cement: Insights from low-field NMR and isothermal calorimetry. Journal of Building Engineering. 80, 108076. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.108076

Downloads

How to Cite

Al Shibani, A. A. N., Poloju, K. K., Al Maashari, B. S. N., Al Ajmi, M. A. A., Al Sarkhi, U. M. S., & Al Marhoobi, Z. S. S. M. (2026). Low-Energy Recycled Cardboard Powder (RCP) as a Cement Substitute in Concrete: Strength-Based Assessment for Sustainable Construction. Journal of Building Material Science, 8(1), 148–164. https://doi.org/10.30564/jbms.v8i1.13077

Issue

Vol. 8, Iss. 1 (March 2026)

Article Type

Article

License

Copyright © 2026 Amna Ali Nasser Al Shibani, Kiran Kumar Poloju, Bushra Sulaiman Nasser Al Maashari, Maryam Ahmed Ali Al Ajmi, Ujadan Muslem Saif Al Sarkhi, Zmzm Said Sultan Mohammed Al Marhoobi

Creative Commons License

This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.

Crossref
Scopus
Google Scholar
Europe PMC