Yong Wu
The Second Surveying and Mapping Institute of Hunan Province, Changsha 410009, China
Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Surface Substrate Monitoring and Ecological Restoration, Changsha 410009, China
Shunqing Qi
The Second Surveying and Mapping Institute of Hunan Province, Changsha 410009, China
Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Surface Substrate Monitoring and Ecological Restoration, Changsha 410009, China
Jiaxing Zhu
Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Surface Substrate Monitoring and Ecological Restoration, Changsha 410009, China
Hunan Ecological Geological Survey and Monitoring Institute, Changsha 410009, China
Hunan Nuclear Construction Engineering Limited Company, Changsha 410009, China
Jun Wen
Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Surface Substrate Monitoring and Ecological Restoration, Changsha 410009, China
Hunan Ecological Geological Survey and Monitoring Institute, Changsha 410009, China
Hunan Nuclear Construction Engineering Limited Company, Changsha 410009, China
Sihong Xia
Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Surface Substrate Monitoring and Ecological Restoration, Changsha 410009, China
Hunan Ecological Geological Survey and Monitoring Institute, Changsha 410009, China
Hunan Nuclear Construction Engineering Limited Company, Changsha 410009, China
Yongzhi Zhang
The Second Surveying and Mapping Institute of Hunan Province, Changsha 410009, China
Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Surface Substrate Monitoring and Ecological Restoration, Changsha 410009, China
Lihong Li
The Second Surveying and Mapping Institute of Hunan Province, Changsha 410009, China
Hunan Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Surface Substrate Monitoring and Ecological Restoration, Changsha 410009, China
Against the backdrop of China's escalating ecological challenges driven by urbanization, industrialization, and climate change, this study addresses the critical need for a unified, nationwide ecological monitoring and early warning system. Focused on China's seven core ecosystems—mountains, waters, forests, fields, lakes, grasslands, and deserts—it analyzes existing fragmented monitoring frameworks and proposes an integrated index system to enhance ecological risk prediction and management. By synthesizing secondary data, including satellite imagery, government reports, and case studies of the Loess Plateau, Poyang Lake, Dongting Lake, and Bayanbulak Grassland, the research evaluates current monitoring efficacy and identifies implementation gaps. It develops a conceptual framework encompassing three key pillars: selection of ecosystem-specific indicators, integration of multi-source data via GIS and remote sensing technologies, and predictive modeling using statistical analysis and machine learning to forecast risks like desertification, flooding, and water pollution. The proposed system demonstrates strong predictive capabilities across diverse ecosystems, accurately identifying high-risk areas and enabling timely interventions. However, challenges persist, including data quality inconsistencies, limitations in short-term extreme event forecasting, and the need to integrate socio-economic factors such as land-use changes and population dynamics. Policy implications emphasize the establishment of a national-level monitoring system, intersectoral collaboration, and enhanced local data collection infrastructure. By refining predictive models and fostering community engagement, the system can significantly strengthen China's ecological resilience, supporting sustainable development goals and ensuring the long-term health of its natural resources. This research provides a foundational framework for scalable, adaptive ecological management in a rapidly changing environment.
[1] Wang, Y., Liu, H., Zhao, W., et al., 2024. Early Warning Signals of Grassland Ecosystem Degradation: A Case Study from the Northeast Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau. Catena. 239, 107970.
[2] Shi, H., Liu, M., Zhu, S., et al., 2023. Construction of an Early Warning System Based on a Fuzzy Matter-Element Model for Diagnosing the Health of Alpine Grassland: A Case Study of Henan County, Qinghai, China. Agronomy. 13(8), 2176.
[3] Wang, Y., Li, Y., 2024. Evaluation of Ecosystem Protection and Restoration Effects Based on the Mountain–River–Forest–Field–Lake–Grass Community Concept: A Case Study of the Hunjiang River Basin in Jilin Province, China. Water. 16(16), 2239.
[4] Zheng, Y., Zhuang, G., 2021. Systemic Governance of Mountains, Rivers, Forests, Farmlands, Lakes and Grasslands: Theoretical Framework and Approaches. Chinese Journal of Urban and Environmental Studies. 9(4), 2150021.
[5] Quansah, J.E., Engel, B., Rochon, G.L., 2010. Early Warning Systems: A Review. Journal of Terrestrial Observation. 2(2), 5.
[6] Cong, W., Li, J., Zhang, Y., et al., 2025. Snow Leopard Habitat Vulnerability Assessment Under Climate Change and Connectivity Corridor in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China. Scientific Reports. 15(1), 14583.
[7] Xu, D., Li, J., Jin, L., et al., 2025. Spatial Heterogeneity and Integrated Management of Ecosystem Service Supply–Demand in the Tarim River Basin. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators. 27, 100849.
[8] Dong, T., Xu, W., Zheng, H., et al., 2018. A Framework for Regional Ecological Risk Warning Based on Ecosystem Service Approach: A Case Study in Ganzi, China. Sustainability. 10(8), 2699.
[9] Xia, J., Ren, D., Wang, X., et al., 2023. Ecosystem Quality Assessment and Ecological Restoration in Fragile Zone of Loess Plateau: A Case Study of Suide County, China. Land. 12(6), 1131.
[10] Qu, Z., Zhao, Y., Luo, M., et al., 2022. The Effect of the Human Footprint and Climate Change on Landscape Ecological Risks: A Case Study of the Loess Plateau, China. Land. 11(2), 217.
[11] Wang, Z., Yang, Z., Shi, H., et al., 2020. Ecosystem Health Assessment of World Natural Heritage Sites Based on Remote Sensing and Field Sampling Verification: Bayanbulak as Case Study. Sustainability. 12(7), 2610.
[12] Tianbao, Q., Fang, H., 2018. China’s National Plan on Implementation of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals: From the Perspective of National Performance of Multilateral Environmental Agreements. Journal of Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University. 5(2), 55–66.
[13] Kivunja, C., 2018. Distinguishing between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and Conceptual Framework: A Systematic Review of Lessons from the Field. International Journal of Higher Education. 7(6), 44–53.
[14] Tierney, G.L., Faber-Langendoen, D., Mitchell, B.R., et al., 2009. Monitoring and Evaluating the Ecological Integrity of Forest Ecosystems. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 7(6), 308–316.
[15] Zhou, C., Wang, S., Wang, C., et al., 2025. Integrated Surveillance and Early Warning System of Emerging Infectious Diseases in China at Community Level: Current Status, Gaps and Perspectives. Science in One Health. 4, 100102.
[16] Fang, S., Xu, L.D., Zhu, Y., et al., 2014. An Integrated System for Regional Environmental Monitoring and Management Based on Internet of Things. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics. 10(2), 1596–1605.
[17] Wu, Q., Zeng, J., Wu, K., 2022. Research and Application of Crop Pest Monitoring and Early Warning Technology in China. Frontiers of Agricultural Science and Engineering. 9(1), 19–36.
[18] Sun, J., Ai, T., Zhao, C., et al., 2007. Assessing Vegetation Degradation in Loess Plateau by Using Potential Vegetation Index. In Proceedings of 2007 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Barcelona, Spain, 23–27 July 2007; pp. 1794–1797.
[19] Li, D., 2024. The Influence of Dongting Fishermen’s Songs on Contemporary Chinese Music: The Overall Impact of Task-Based Teaching and Improvisation on Students. Revista Electrónica de LEEME. 54, 165–179.
[20] Xiong, S., Yang, F., 2024. Ecological Resilience in Water–Land Transition Zones: A Case Study of the Dongting Lake Region, China. Ecological Indicators. 166, 112284.
[21] Zhao, Y., Luo, J., Li, T., et al., 2023. A Framework to Identify Priority Areas for Restoration: Integrating Human Demand and Ecosystem Services in Dongting Lake Eco-Economic Zone, China. Land. 12(5), 965.
[22] Kakoyannis, C., 2004. Learning to Address Complexity in Natural Resource Management [PhD Thesis]. Oregon State University: Corvallis, OR, USA. Available from: https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/downloads/8p58ph21k
[23] Ceccato, P., Fernandes, K., Ruiz, D., et al., 2014. Climate and Environmental Monitoring for Decision Making. Earth Perspectives. 1(1), 16.
[24] Lai, X., Chen, H., Hou, Y., et al., 2021. Lowering Water Level of Dongting Lake of the Mid-Yangtze River in Response to Large-Scale Dam Construction: A 60-Year Analysis. Geomorphology. 391, 107894.
[25] Zhang, J., Huang, T., Chen, L., et al., 2020. Impact of the Three Gorges Reservoir on the Hydrologic Regime of the River–Lake System in the Middle Yangtze River. Journal of Cleaner Production. 258, 121004.
[26] Li, J., Pei, Y., Zhao, S., et al., 2020. A Review of Remote Sensing for Environmental Monitoring in China. Remote Sensing. 12(7), 1130.
[27] Du, W., Liao, X., Tong, Z., et al., 2023. Early Warning and Scenario Simulation of Ecological Security Based on DPSIRM Model and Bayesian Network: A Case Study of East Liaohe River in Jilin Province, China. Journal of Cleaner Production. 398, 136649.
[28] Sun, X., Liu, F., Zhao, Y., et al., 2024. Research on Environmental Risk Monitoring and Advance Warning Technologies of Power Transmission and Distribution Projects Construction Phase. Sensors. 24(23), 7695.
[29] Cao, C., Ying, M., 2025. Assessing Water Resource Vulnerability in an Agricultural Basin for Climate Change Adaptation. Water Resources Management. 39(1), 179–205.
[30] Chen, J., 2019. Protection Objects of the Ecological Environment in the Yangtze River Basin. In Evolution and Water Resources Utilization of the Yangtze River. Springer: Singapore. pp. 341–383.
[31] Duan, W., Takara, K., 2020. Impacts of Climate and Human Activities on Water Resources and Quality: Integrated Regional Assessment. Springer: Singapore. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9394-5
[32] Jia, K., Chen, S., 2019. Could Campaign-Style Enforcement Improve Environmental Performance? Evidence From China’s Central Environmental Protection Inspection. Journal of Environmental Management. 245, 282–290.
[33] He, X., Cai, C., Shi, J., 2023. Evaluation of Tourism Ecological Security and Its Driving Mechanism in the Yellow River Basin, China: Based on Open Systems Theory and DPSIR Model. Systems. 11(7), 336.
[34] Wang, S., Chen, S., Zhang, H., et al., 2021. The Model of Early Warning for China’s Marine Ecology–Economy Symbiosis Security. Marine Policy. 128, 104476.
[35] David, O., Ascough, J.C., Lloyd, W., et al., 2013. A Software Engineering Perspective on Environmental Modeling Framework Design: The Object Modeling System. Environmental Modelling and Software. 39, 201–213.
[36] Hoang, T.V., Chou, T.Y., Nguyen, N.T., et al., 2019. A Robust Early Warning System for Preventing Flash Floods in Mountainous Area in Vietnam. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information. 8(5), 228.
[37] Psaroudakis, C., Xanthopoulos, G., Stavrakoudis, D., et al., 2021. Development of an Early Warning and Incident Response System for the Protection of Visitors From Natural Hazards in Important Outdoor Sites in Greece. Sustainability. 13(9), 5143.
[38] Gao, F., Hilker, T., Zhu, X., et al., 2015. Fusing Landsat and MODIS Data for Vegetation Monitoring. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine. 3(3), 47–60.
[39] Yanbin, H., Qiujin, X., Xiaozhen, H., et al., 2019. Effects of Different Degradation Degrees on Soil Characteristics in Bayanbulak Grassland, Xinjiang. Journal of Environmental Engineering Technology. 9(5), 579–586.
[40] Ali, B., Gregory, M.A., Li, S., 2021. Multi-Access Edge Computing Architecture, Data Security and Privacy: A Review. IEEE Access. 9, 18706–18721.
[41] Li, X., Eckert, M., Martinez, J.-F., et al., 2015. Context-Aware Middleware Architectures: Survey and Challenges. Sensors. 15(8), 20570–20607.
[42] Dong, S., Zhang, Y., Shen, H., et al., 2023. Grasslands on the Third Pole of the World: Structure, Function, Process, and Resilience of Social-Ecological Systems. Springer: Cham, Switzerland. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39485-0
[43] Li, L., Zhang, Z., Ni, Z., et al., 2024. Changes in the Lake–Grassland Ecosystem Revealed by Multiple Proxies in a Sediment Core From Ganggeng Nur Lake, Northern China. Quaternary Research. 117, 30–42.
[44] Shang, X., Chen, W., 2024. Effects of the Main Media of Wind and Water on the Biodiversity Pattern of Grassland and Its Driving Mechanism in Poyang Lake. Ecohydrology. 17(8), e2707.
[45] Cai, Q.-G., 2001. Soil Erosion and Management on the Loess Plateau. Journal of Geographical Sciences. 11(1), 53–70.
[46] Li, B., Yang, G., Wan, R., 2020. Multidecadal Water Quality Deterioration in the Largest Freshwater Lake in China (Poyang Lake): Implications on Eutrophication Management. Environmental Pollution. 260, 114033.
[47] Li, T., 2024. Sustainable Development and Management of Ecosystem in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas: A Focus on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau and Inner Mongolian Grasslands [PhD Thesis]. Griffith University: Brisbane, Australia. Available from: https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au/items/8c98730e-bd62-4619-833a-6939479240e6
[48] Geng, M., Wang, K., Yang, N., et al., 2021. Evaluation and Variation Trends Analysis of Water Quality in Response to Water Regime Changes in a Typical River-Connected Lake (Dongting Lake), China. Environmental Pollution. 268, 115761.
[49] Geng, M., Wang, K., Yang, N., et al., 2021. Spatiotemporal Water Quality Variations and Their Relationship With Hydrological Conditions in Dongting Lake After the Operation of the Three Gorges Dam, China. Journal of Cleaner Production. 283, 124644.
[50] Li, P., Wang, J., Liu, M., et al., 2021. Spatio-Temporal Variation Characteristics of NDVI and Its Response to Climate on the Loess Plateau From 1985 to 2015. Catena. 203, 105331.
[51] Macherera, M., Chimbari, M.J., 2016. A Review of Studies on Community-Based Early Warning Systems. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies. 8(1), 206.
[52] Shi, H., Yang, Z., Han, F., et al., 2015. Assessing Landscape Ecological Risk for a World Natural Heritage Site: A Case Study of Bayanbulak in China. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies. 24(1).
[53] Xiao, J., Xie, B., Zhou, K., et al., 2021. Assessment of Soil Erosion in the Dongting Lake Basin, China: Patterns, Drivers, and Implications. PLOS One. 16(12), e0261842.
[54] Yurui, L., Yi, L., Pengcan, F., et al., 2019. Impacts of Land Consolidation on Rural Human–Environment System in Typical Watershed of the Loess Plateau and Implications for Rural Development Policy. Land Use Policy. 86, 339–350.
[55] Dong, S., Zhang, Y., Shen, H., et al., 2023. Overview of the Third Pole’s Grasslands. In Grasslands on the Third Pole of the World: Structure, Function, Process, and Resilience of Social–Ecological Systems. Springer: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 31–72.
[56] Liu, Y., Liu, J., Yin, X., et al., 2024. Human Activities and Ecosystem Health: A Historical Analysis of Poyang Lake. Ecological Indicators. 166, 112446.
[57] Wang, Y., Molinos, J.G., Shi, L., et al., 2019. Drivers and Changes of the Poyang Lake Wetland Ecosystem. Wetlands. 39(S1), 35–44.
[58] Chen, X., Wang, M., Zhang, E., 2022. Updated Species Checklist of Fishes From Lake Dongting in Hunan Province, South China: Species Diversity and Conservation. ZooKeys. 1108, 51.
[59] Yang, Z.-M., Han, L.-F., Liu, Q.-P., et al., 2022. Spatial and Temporal Changes in Wetland in Dongting Lake Basin of China Under Long Time Series from 1990 to 2020. Sustainability. 14(6), 3620.
[60] Yu, X., Lei, J., Gao, X., 2022. An Overview of Desertification in Xinjiang, Northwest China. Journal of Arid Land. 14(11), 1181–1195.
[61] Bai, J., Li, J., Bao, A., et al., 2021. Spatial–Temporal Variations of Ecological Vulnerability in the Tarim River Basin, Northwest China. Journal of Arid Land. 13(8), 814–834.
[62] Segalini, A., Carri, A., Valletta, A., et al., 2019. Innovative Monitoring Tools and Early Warning Systems for Risk Management: A Case Study. Geosciences. 9(2), 62.
[63] Chen, J., 2020. Evolution and Water Resources Utilization of the Yangtze River. Springer: Singapore.
[64] Wang, H., Liu, X., Wang, H., 2016. The Yangtze River Floodplain: Threats and Rehabilitation. American Fisheries Society Symposium. 84, 263–291.
[65] Pan, D., Deng, Y., Yang, S.X., et al., 2025. Recent Advances in Remote Sensing and Artificial Intelligence for River Water Quality Forecasting: A Review. Environments. 12(5), 158.
[66] Zhang, J., Li, J., Zhu, C., et al., 2025. A Comprehensive Environmental Index for Monitoring Ecological Quality of Typical Alpine Wetlands in Central Asia. Ecological Indicators. 171, 113216.
[67] Li, B., Yang, G., Wan, R., et al., 2022. Impacts of Hydrological Alteration on Ecosystem Services Changes of a Large River-Connected Lake (Poyang Lake), China. Journal of Environmental Management. 310, 114750.
[68] Tong, C., Jin, Y., Liang, B., et al., 2024. A Comprehensive Framework for Monitoring and Providing Early Warning of Resource and Environmental Carrying Capacity Within the Yangtze River Economic Belt Based on Big Data. Land. 13(12), 1993.
[69] Chen, W., Lian, M., 2025. Analysis and Early Warning Management of Resource and Environmental Carrying Capacity in Agricultural Provinces: A Case Study of Henan Province. PLOS One. 20(2), e0318848.
[70] Cheng, Q., Liu, X., Han, X., et al., 2025. Optimizing Ecosystem Service Patterns With Dynamic Bayesian Networks for Sustainable Land Management Under Climate Change: A Case Study in China’s Sanjiangyuan Region. Remote Sensing. 17(19), 3357.
[71] Howari, F., 2026. AI–Remote Sensing for Soil Variability Mapping and Precision Agrochemical Management: A Comprehensive Review of Methods, Limitations, and Climate-Smart Applications. Agrochemicals. 5(1), 1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/agrochemicals5010001
[72] Nguyen, M.-K., 2024. Plastic Waste as a Challenge Cannot Be Ignored: Characteristics, Sources, Impacts, and Unveiling Potential Solutions through Photocatalysis for Environmental Sustainability. In: Kumar, A., Kumar, S., Singh, L. (Eds.). Plastic Degradation and Conversion by Photocatalysis (Volume 2): From Waste to Wealth. ACS Publications: Washington, DC, USA. pp. 249–265.
[73] Pulwarty, R.S., Sivakumar, M.V., 2014. Information Systems in a Changing Climate: Early Warnings and Drought Risk Management. Weather and Climate Extremes. 3, 14–21.
[74] Wang, R., Sun, Y., Zong, J., et al., 2024. Remote Sensing Application in Ecological Restoration Monitoring: A Systematic Review. Remote Sensing. 16(12), 2204.
[75] Krebs, C.J., 1989. Ecological Methodology. Harper and Row: New York, NY, USA.
[76] Yang, R., Chen, Y., Qiu, Y., et al., 2023. Assessing the Landscape Ecological Health of Wetlands: Research Content and Evaluation Methods (2000–2022). Water. 15(13), 2410.
[77] Cui, N., Feng, C.-C., Han, R., et al., 2019. Impact of Urbanization on Ecosystem Health: A Case Study in Zhuhai, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 16(23), 4717.
[78] Foley, J.A., DeFries, R., Asner, G.P., et al., 2005. Global Consequences of Land Use. Science. 309(5734), 570–574.
[79] Reed, M.S., Stringer, L.C., 2016. Land Degradation, Desertification and Climate Change: Anticipating, Assessing and Adapting to Future Change. Routledge: Londonm UK.
[80] Yu, Z., Deng, X., Fu, P., et al., 2024. Assessment of Land Degradation Risks in the Loess Plateau. Land Degradation and Development. 35(7), 2409–2424.
[81] Dronova, I., 2012. The Study of Seasonal Composition and Dynamics of Wetland Ecosystems and Wintering Bird Habitat at Poyang Lake, PR China Using Object-Based Image Analysis and Field Observations [PhD Thesis]. University of California, Berkeley: Berkeley, CA, USA.
[82] Chan, H.S., Wong, K.-K., Cheung, K., et al., 1995. The Implementation Gap in Environmental Management in China: The Case of Guangzhou, Zhengzhou, and Nanjing. Public Administration Review. 55(4), 333–340.
Copyright © 2025 Yong Wu, Shunqing Qi, Jiaxing Zhu, Jun Wen, Sihong Xia, Yongzhi Zhang, Lihong Li
This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.
