Acknowledgment to the Reviewers of Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences in 2025
2026-02-06
Policy Gaps in Land and Resource Planning: A Global Comparative Assessment
Authors
-
Jixiang Wu
Information Office, Yunnan Provincial Institute of Land and Resources Planning and Design, Kunming 650216, China
-
Jun Wu
Information Office, Yunnan Provincial Institute of Land and Resources Planning and Design, Kunming 650216, China
-
Tianxiang Long
Institute of Mineral Resources Planning, Yunnan Provincial Institute of Land and Resources Planning and Design, Kunming 650216, China
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v8i2.12870Abstract
Integrated land and resource planning is critical for achieving global sustainability goals, yet a persistent chasm separates policy ambition from on-the-ground outcomes. The review article undertakes a comparative evaluation across the world to diagnose the systemic gaps of the policy that is leading to this implementation failure. We come up with a general typology of 5 categories of gaps that are interconnected: spatial-temporal mismatches, institutional fragmentation, the knowledge-action divide, lack of equity and justice, and broken monitoring and feedback loops. In a comparative study of the High-Income Countries, Rapidly Developing Economies, and Low-Income Countries, we show how these universal gaps are reflected in specific contextual syndromes, which are defined by the political economy, state capacity, and global integration. As can be seen in the analysis, these failures are not stand-alone but exist in a vicious, self-perpetuating cycle that is based on power asymmetries, institutional path dependency, and scale mismatches. In order to break this cycle, we suggest a revolutionary structure of action, which is structured around integration, adaptive management, and justice. The framework identifies the specific operation strategies, such as developing meta-governance formations and establishing community tenure to implement participatory monitoring, and aligning a multi-scale agenda. We infer that the implementation gap must be bridged by going beyond technical solutions to ensure a virtuous circle of legitimate learning-oriented governance that can address the complexity of socio-ecological conditions of the Anthropocene.
Keywords:
Land Use Policy; Governance Fragmentation; Policy Implementation Gap; Environmental Justice; Adaptive ManagementReferences
[1] Behnassi, M., Yaya, S., 2011. Land Resource Governance from a Sustainability and Rural Development Perspective. In: Behnassi, M., Shahid, S.A., D’Silva, J. (Eds.). Sustainable Agricultural Development. Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands. pp. 3–23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0519-7_1
[2] Wakeford, R., 2003. Planning a Countryside for Life. Planning Theory & Practice. 4(1), 77–85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1464935032000057227j
[3] Verhoog, S., 2013. The Politics of Land Deals: A Comparative Analysis of Global Land Policies on Large-Scale Land Acquisition. In Proceedings of the 2013 Land Divided Conference University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, March 2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3173.8005
[4] Carlstein, T., 2019. Time Resources, Society and Ecology: On the Capacity for Human Interaction in Space and Time. Routledge: Lodnon, UK.
[5] Young, A., 1998. Land Resources: Now and for the Future, 1st ed. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511622991
[6] Weiss, T., 2016. Defining Research Gaps Concerning the Implementation of Socio-ecological Transition. WWWforEurope Working Paper No. 115. WWWforEurope: Vienna, Austria.
[7] Ekers, M., Prudham, S., 2015. Towards the socio-ecological fix. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space. 47(12), 2438–2445. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0308518X15617573
[8] Kelly, C., Wynants, M., Munishi, L.K., et al., 2020. ‘Mind the Gap’: Reconnecting Local Actions and Multi-Level Policies to Bridge the Governance Gap. An Example of Soil Erosion Action from East Africa. Land. 9(10), 352. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/land9100352
[9] Herbert, J., 2021. Reimagining Socio-Ecological Crisis and Transformation: Exploring Narratives of Young Environmental Activists in North East England [PhD Thesis]. Newcastle University: Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.11291.13602
[10] Hearson, M., 2021. Imposing Standards: The North-South Dimension to Global Tax Politics. Cornell University Press: Ithaca, NY, USA. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501756009
[11] Clarkson, S., Wood, S., 2010. A Perilous Imbalance: The Globalization of Canadian Law and Governance. University of British Columbia Press: Vancouver, BC, Canada. DOI: https://doi.org/10.59962/9780774814904
[12] Musgrave, M., 2016. Scale, Governance and Change in Zambezi Teak Forests: Sustainable Development for Commodity and Community. Cambridge Scholars Publishing: Cambridge, UK.
[13] Winkler, K.J., Dade, M.C., Rieb, J.T., 2021. Mismatches in the Ecosystem Services Literature—A Review of Spatial, Temporal, and Functional-Conceptual Mismatches. Current Landscape Ecology Reports. 6(2), 23–34. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40823-021-00063-2
[14] Fang, Y., Miao, H., Liang, Y., et al., 2025. Unraveling Spatio-Temporal Foundation Models via the Pipeline Lens: A Comprehensive Review. arXiv preprint. arXiv:2506.01364. DOI: https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2506.01364
[15] Abel, N., Cumming, D.H.M., Anderies, J.M., 2006. Collapse and Reorganization in Social-Ecological Systems: Questions, Some Ideas, and Policy Implications. Ecology and Society. 11(1), art17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-01593-110117
[16] Franzese, R.J., 2002. Electoral and partisan cycles in economic policies and outcomes. Annual Review of Political Science. 5(1), 369–421. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.5.112801.080924
[17] Klomp, J., De Haan, J., 2013. Political budget cycles and election outcomes. Public Choice. 157(1–2), 245–267. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-012-9943-y
[18] Maila, T.L., 2025. Towards Functional Cross-Border Spatial Planning: A Case Study of Setsoto Local Municipality in the Free State Province-Lesotho Borderland [PhD Thesis]. University of Debrecen: Debrecen, Hungary.
[19] Ferraro, G., Failler, P., 2024. Biodiversity, multi-level governance, and policy implementation in Europe: A comparative analysis at the subnational level. Journal of Public Policy. 44(3), 546–572. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0143814X24000072
[20] Similä, J., Primmer, E., 2012. Legal Analysis of the Relationship between European State Aid and Nature Conservation Law, and Economic Instruments for Biodiversity Protection: Policy Mix D6.2. University of Lapland: Rovaniemi, Finland.
[21] Gnad, O., 2020. The Future of Multilateralism—Which Direction for German Multilateral Development Policy? Bureau für Zeitgeschehen (BfZ) GmbH: Berlin, Germany.
[22] Yigitcanlar, T., Velibeyoglu, K., Baum, S. (Eds.), 2008. Knowledge-Based Urban Development: Planning and Applications in the Information Era. IGI Global: New York, NY, USA. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-59904-720-1
[23] Lam, D.P.M., Hinz, E., Lang, D.J., et al., 2020. Indigenous and local knowledge in sustainability transformations research: A literature review. Ecology and Society. 25(1), art3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-11305-250103
[24] Vizina, Y.N., 2010. Métis Traditional Environmental Knowledge and Science Education [Master's Thesis]. University of Saskatchewan: Saskatoon, Sask, Canada.
[25] Schreiner, G.O., 2020. Measuring the Effectiveness of Scientific Assessments at the Knowledge-Policy Interface. 2University of the Witwatersrand: Johannesburg, South Africa.
[26] Phuhlisani, N., 2017. The Role of Land Tenure and Governance in Reproducing and Transforming Spatial Inequality. Parliament of South Africa: Cape Town, South Africa.
[27] Zhang, W., ElDidi, H., Masuda, Y.J., et al., 2023. Community-Based Conservation of Freshwater Resources: Learning from a Critical Review of the Literature and Case Studies. Society & Natural Resources. 36(6), 733–754. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2023.2191228
[28] Hartwig, L.D., Jackson, S., Markham, F., et al., 2021. Water colonialism and Indigenous water justice in south-eastern Australia. International Journal of Water Resources Development. 1–34. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2020.1868980
[29] Mapitsa, C.B., Churchill, C., 2023. Monitoring Systems in Africa. African Sun Media: Stellenbosch, South Africa. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52779/9781991260154/00
[30] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2015. Developing an Inventory and Typology of Land-Use Planning Systems and Policy Instruments in OECD Countries (OECD Environment Working Papers No. 94). OECD: Paris, France. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/5jrp6wgxp09s-en
[31] Bosomworth, K., Leith, P., Harwood, A., et al., 2017. What’s the problem in adaptation pathways planning? The potential of a diagnostic problem-structuring approach. Environmental Science & Policy. 76, 23–28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.06.007
[32] Trop, T., 2017. From knowledge to action: Bridging the gaps toward effective incorporation of Landscape Character Assessment approach in land-use planning and management in Israel. Land Use Policy. 61, 220–230. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.10.052
[33] Ryan, D., Bustos, E., 2019. Knowledge gaps and climate adaptation policy: A comparative analysis of six Latin American countries. Climate Policy. 19(10), 1297–1309. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2019.1661819
[34] Schneider, C.H., Parambath, S., Young, J.J., et al., 2022. From Local Action to Global Policy: A Comparative Policy Content Analysis of National Policies to Address Musculoskeletal Health to Inform Global Policy Development. International Journal of Health Policy and Management. 1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.34172/ijhpm.2022.7031
[35] Nwankwo, N., Titus, O., Obahiagbon, E.G., 2024. Comparative Gap Frame Analysis: Evaluating Sustainability and Development in Nigeria and Ghana. International Journal of Sustainable Energy Development. 12(1), 615–628. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20533/ijsed.2046.3707.2024.0073
[36] International Monetary Fund, 2022. A More Fragmented World. International Monetary Fund: Washington, DC, USA.
[37] Bray, M., 2003. Comparative and International Research in Education: Globalisation, Context and Difference, 1st ed. Routledge: London, UK. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203452745
[38] Doherty, J., Sonnenfeld, A., Glandon, D., et al., 2020. Protocol: The Effects of Rule of Law Interventions on Justice Outcomes: An Evidence Gap Map. International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie): New Delhi, India.
[39] Jakovljevic, M., Liu, Y., Cerda, A., et al., 2021. The Global South political economy of health financing and spending landscape—History and presence. Journal of Medical Economics. 24(sup1), 25–33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13696998.2021.2007691
[40] McLain, R., Poe, M., Biedenweg, K., et al., 2013. Making Sense of Human Ecology Mapping: An Overview of Approaches to Integrating Socio-Spatial Data into Environmental Planning. Human Ecology. 41(5), 651–665. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-013-9573-0
[41] Sustelo, M.L.M.G., 2023. Examining the Feasibility of Attaining Carbon Neutrality by 2050 and Ensuring a Just Transition: The European Green Deal in the Context of EU Law. Universidade NOVA de Lisboa: Lisbon, Portuga.
[42] Jiang, S., 2024. Coherence and Compromise: European Green Deal and European Integration [Master's Thesis]. University of Ottawa: Ottawa, ON, Canada.
[43] Iapaolo, F., 2021. De-Individuation of the Modern Subject in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. The Case of Self-Driving Cars and Algorithms for Decision Making [PhD Thesis]. Polytechnic University of Turin: Turin, Italy.
[44] Cleveland, C.J., Ashmore, J., Barnhart, A., et al., 2020. Climate of Crisis: How Cities Can Use Climate Action to Close the Equity Gap, Drive Economic Recovery, and Improve Public Health. Boston University: Boston, MA, USA.
[45] Tran, H.P.N., 2019. Linking Inclusive Green Growth and the Informal Economy: Relationship between Small-Scale Farming and Informal Vending in South Africa [Master's Thesis]. Massachusetts Institute of Technology: Cambridge, MA, USA.
[46] Agnew, J., 2005. Sovereignty Regimes: Territoriality and State Authority in Contemporary World Politics. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 95(2), 437–461. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.2005.00468.x
[47] Brown, E., Milward, B., Mohan, G., et al., 2013. Contested sovereignty and democratic contradictions: The political impacts of adjustment. In Structural Adjustment. Routledge: London, UK. pp. 95–114. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203352533-14
[48] Urzedo, D., Chatterjee, P., 2021. The Colonial Reproduction of Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon: Violence Against Indigenous Peoples for Land Development. In The Genocide-Ecocide Nexus. Routledge: London, UK. pp. 146–168. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003253983-8
[49] Kapiriri, L., 2012. Priority Setting in Low Income Countries: The Roles and Legitimacy of Development Assistance Partners. Public Health Ethics. 5(1), 67–80. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/phe/phs004
[50] Mangwanya, M., 2022. Evaluating the impacts of foreign aid on low-income countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science (2147- 4478). 11(6), 370–377. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v11i6.1925
[51] Asongu, S.A., 2017. The Comparative Economics of Knowledge Economy in Africa: Policy Benchmarks, Syndromes, and Implications. Journal of the Knowledge Economy. 8(2), 596–637. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-015-0273-4
[52] Kajembe, G., Nduwamungu, J., Luoga, E., 2005. Impact of community-based forest management and joint forest management on forest resource base and local peoples' livelihoods: Case studies from Tanzania. Commons Southern Africa Occasional Paper Series. 8. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237282469_e_impact_of_community-based_forest_management_and_joint_forest_management_on_the_forest_resource_base_and_local_people's_livelihoods_Case_studies_from_Tanzania
[53] Zulu, L.C., 2009. Politics of scale and community-based forest management in southern Malawi. Geoforum. 40(4), 686–699. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2009.05.007
[54] Vinez, M., 2017. Division of the Commons and Access to Land on the Frontier: Lessons from the Colonial Legacy in the Democratic Republic of Congo. World Bank: Washington, DC, USA.
[55] McConnell, A., 2016. A public policy approach to understanding the nature and causes of foreign policy failure. Journal of European Public Policy. 23(5), 667–684. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2015.1127278
[56] Siangulube, F.S., Ros-Tonen, M.A.F., Reed, J., et al., 2023. Navigating power imbalances in landscape governance: A network and influence analysis in southern Zambia. Regional Environmental Change. 23(1), 41. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-023-02031-4
[57] Béné, C., Belal, E., Baba, M.O., et al., 2009. Power Struggle, Dispute and Alliance Over Local Resources: Analyzing ‘Democratic’ Decentralization of Natural Resources through the Lenses of Africa Inland Fisheries. World Development. 37(12), 1935–1950. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.05.003
[58] Davy, B., 2016. Land Policy: Planning and the Spatial Consequences of Property. Routledge: Ldondon, UK. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315250953
[59] Ianos, I.I., Crăciun, C., Sorensen, A., 2024. Exploring an Urban Landscape Dynamics, Affected by "Tabula Rasa” and "Laissez-Faire” Planning Policies. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4953948
[60] Cullingworth, J.B., Cullingworth, J.B., 2002. The Political Culture of Planning. Routledge: London, UK. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203420331
[61] Percarpio, K.B., Watts, B.V., Weeks, W.B., 2008. The Effectiveness of Root Cause Analysis: What Does the Literature Tell Us? The Joint Commission Journal on Quality and Patient Safety. 34(7), 391–398. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1553-7250(08)34049-5
[62] Taitz, J., Genn, K., Brooks, V., et al., 2010. System-wide learning from root cause analysis: A report from the New South Wales Root Cause Analysis Review Committee. BMJ Quality & Safety. 19(6), e63–e63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/qshc.2008.032144
[63] Mirchi, A., Madani, K., Watkins, D., et al., 2012. Synthesis of System Dynamics Tools for Holistic Conceptualization of Water Resources Problems. Water Resources Management. 26(9), 2421–2442. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-012-0024-2
[64] Rajan, R.G., 2011. Failed States, Vicious Cycles, and a Proposal. SSRN Electronic Journal. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1824642
[65] Cumming, G.S., Cumming, D.H.M., Redman, C.L., 2006. Scale Mismatches in Social-Ecological Systems: Causes, Consequences, and Solutions. Ecology and Society. 11(1), art14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-01569-110114
[66] Alston, L., Libecap, G., Mueller, B., 1999. Titles, Conflict, and Land Use: The Development of Property Rights and Land Reform on the Brazilian Amazon Frontier. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor, MI, USA. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.16208
[67] Pinker, S., 2018. Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress. Penguin : London, UK.
[68] West, S., Haider, J., Sinare, H., et al., 2014. Beyond Divides: Prospects for Synergy between Resilience and Pathways Approaches to Sustainability. STEPS Centre: Brighton, UK.
[69] Healey, P., 2007. The new institutionalism and the transformative goals of planning. Institutions and Planning. 61, 61–87.
[70] Maguze, T.C., 2023. The Governance of Macroprudential Policy: How to Build Regulatory Legitimacy through a Social Justice Approach, 1st ed. Hart Publishing: Oxford, UK. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5040/9781509968428
[71] Qu, Z., Garfinkel, A., Weiss, J.N., et al., 2011. Multi-scale modeling in biology: How to bridge the gaps between scales? Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology. 107(1), 21–31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2011.06.004
[72] Rosenfeld, R.M., Shiffman, R.N., Robertson, P., 2013. Clinical Practice Guideline Development Manual, Third Edition: A Quality‐Driven Approach for Translating Evidence into Action. Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 148(S1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0194599812467004
[73] Rosenfeld, R.M., Shiffman, R.N., 2009. Clinical Practice Guideline Development Manual: A Quality‐Driven Approach for Translating Evidence into Action. Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 140(S6). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otohns.2009.04.015
[74] Brömmelstroet, M.T., Schrijnen, P.M., 2010. From Planning Support Systems to Mediated Planning Support: A Structured Dialogue to Overcome the Implementation Gap. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design. 37(1), 3–20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1068/b35019
[75] Wang, W., 2022. Short-term or long-term? New insights into rural collectives’ perceptions of Land Value Capture within China’s rural land marketization reform. Journal of Rural Studies. 89, 87–97. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2021.11.015
[76] McCarthy, J.F., Dhiaulhaq, A., Afiff, S., et al., 2022. Land reform rationalities and their governance effects in Indonesia: Provoking land politics or addressing adverse formalisation? Geoforum. 132, 92–102. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2022.04.008
[77] Underdal, A., 2010. Complexity and challenges of long-term environmental governance. Global Environmental Change. 20(3), 386–393. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.02.005
[78] Panara, C., 2015. The Sub-national Dimension of the EU. In The Sub-National Dimension of the EU. Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 11–43. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14589-1_2
[79] Abbott, K.W., Snidal, D., 2021. Strengthening international regulation through transnational new governance: Overcoming the orchestration deficit. Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law. 42(2). Available from: https://scholarship.law.vanderbilt.edu/vjtl/vol42/iss2/4/
Downloads
How to Cite
Wu, J., Wu, J., & Long, T. (2026). Policy Gaps in Land and Resource Planning: A Global Comparative Assessment. Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences, 8(2), 135–156. https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v8i2.12870
Issue
Article Type
Review
License
Copyright © 2026 Jixiang Wu, Jun Wu, Tianxiang Long
This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.
