Acknowledgment to the Reviewers of Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences in 2025
2026-02-06
Geophysical Controls on River Turbulence: Implications for Bank Erosion and Pollutant Dispersion
Authors
-
Yifan Zhang
Chengzhuang Coal Mine of Jincheng Lanyan Coal Industry Co., Ltd., Jincheng 048021, China
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v8i8.13382Abstract
Turbulence plays a critical role in the transfer of momentum, sediment, and pollutants in rivers. We review the state of knowledge on geophysical controls of river turbulence and their role in bank erosion and contaminant transport. Controlling factors, such as channel geometry, boundary roughness, flow conditions, and forcing, have been shown to affect not only the magnitude of turbulence but also its spatial structure and temporal dynamics. The review underscores the role of organized structures, intermittent bursts, and scale interactions in driving near-boundary mechanisms and mixing processes. For bank erosion, turbulence produces fluctuating stresses and pressures that interact with spatially varying bank materials, resulting in complex erosion processes that go beyond threshold-based models. Intermittent high-energy events, such as floods, are shown to play a significant role in erosion. In terms of pollutant dispersion, turbulence dictates mixing and transport processes and can lead to non-Fickian transport behavior in complex channels with temporary storage zones. The review highlights the link between erosion and dispersion, both of which are controlled by turbulence and partially by similar geophysical factors. It also discusses current shortcomings of the models and suggests the need for integrated, multi-scale models considering unsteady turbulence. The development of such approaches is critical to enhance predictions and inform river protection and management.
Keywords:
River Turbulence; Bank Erosion; Pollutant Dispersion; Channel Morphology; Hydrodynamic ProcessesReferences
[1] Thorp, J.H., Thoms, M.C., Delong, M.D., 2006. The riverine ecosystem synthesis: Biocomplexity in river networks across space and time. River Research and Applications. 22(2), 123–147.
[2] Robert, A., 2014. River Processes: An Introduction to Fluvial Dynamics. Routledge: London, UK.
[3] Franca, M.J., Brocchini, M., 2015. Turbulence in rivers. In: Rowiński, P., Radecki-Pawlik, A. (Eds.). Rivers–Physical, Fluvial and Environmental Processes. Springer: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 51–78.
[4] Maji, S., Hanmaiahgari, P.R., Balachandar, R., et al., 2020. A review on hydrodynamics of free surface flows in emergent vegetated channels. Water. 12(4), 1218.
[5] Bilal, M., Ghani, U., Asif, M., et al., 2025. Hydrodynamics of Three‐Dimensional Flow Structure in a Rigid Patchy Vegetated Open Channel With Bank Roughness Elements. Ecohydrology. 18(2), e70019.
[6] Fox, G.A., Sheshukov, A., Cruse, R., et al., 2016. Reservoir sedimentation and upstream sediment sources: Perspectives and future research needs on streambank and gully erosion. Environmental Management. 57(5), 945–955.
[7] Das, V.K., Debnath, K., 2025. Understanding riverbank erosion through the Lens of Turbulence: A review. Journal of Hydrology. 649, 132484.
[8] Ji, Z.-G., 2017. Hydrodynamics and Water Quality: Modeling Rivers, Lakes, and Estuaries. John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA.
[9] Boano, F., Harvey, J.W., Marion, A., et al., 2014. Hyporheic flow and transport processes: Mechanisms, models, and biogeochemical implications. Reviews of Geophysics. 52(4), 603–679.
[10] Förstner, U., 2004. Sediment dynamics and pollutant mobility in rivers: An interdisciplinary approach. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research & Management. 9(1), 25–40.
[11] Mir, A.A., Patel, M., 2024. A comprehensive review on sediment transport, flow dynamics, and hazards in steep channels. Journal of Water Management Modeling. 32, C517.
[12] Trinci, G., Harvey, G.L., Henshaw, A.J., et al., 2023. Turbulence signatures of natural river morphology in four dimensions. River Research and Applications. 39(1), 122–133.
[13] Reuther, N., Kähler, C.J., 2020. Effect of the intermittency dynamics on single and multipoint statistics of turbulent boundary layers. Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 897, A11.
[14] Cho, S.J., Karwan, D.L., Skalak, K., et al., 2023. Sediment sources and connectivity linked to hydrologic pathways and geomorphic processes: A conceptual model to specify sediment sources and pathways through space and time. Frontiers in Water. 5, 1241622.
[15] Raizer, V., 2021. Remote Sensing of Turbulence. CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA.
[16] Mahmoud, A., Gajbhiye, R., 2026. Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) in Flow Assurance: Fundamentals, Applications, and Future Research Directions. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering. 51, 14613–14633.
[17] Zegeye, A.D., Langendoen, E.J., Steenhuis, T.S., et al., 2020. Bank stability and toe erosion model as a decision tool for gully bank stabilization in sub humid Ethiopian highlands. Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology. 20(2), 301–311.
[18] Martin, J.L., McCutcheon, S.C., 2018. Hydrodynamics and Transport for Water Quality Modeling. CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA.
[19] Keylock, C.J., 2015. Flow resistance in natural, turbulent channel flows: The need for a fluvial fluid mechanics. Water Resources Research. 51(6), 4374–4390.
[20] Harun, Z., Lotfy, E.R., 2019. Generation, evolution, and characterization of turbulence coherent structures. In: Barillé, R. (Ed.). Turbulence and Related Phenomena. IntechOpen: London, UK.
[21] Rodriguez, J.F., García, M.H., 2008. Laboratory measurements of 3-D flow patterns and turbulence in straight open channel with rough bed. Journal of Hydraulic Research. 46(4), 454–465.
[22] Stoesser, T., Ruether, N., Olsen, N.R.B., 2010. Calculation of primary and secondary flow and boundary shear stresses in a meandering channel. Advances in Water Resources. 33(2), 158–170.
[23] Surian, N., 2015. Fluvial processes in braided rivers. In Rivers–Physical, Fluvial and Environmental Processes. Springer: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 403–425.
[24] Sandilya, S.S., Das, B.S., 2026. Hydrodynamic zones in river confluences: A comprehensive review of challenges and future research prospects. Hydrological Sciences Journal. 71(5), 989–1009.
[25] Choi, C.E., Goodwin, S.R., 2021. Effects of interactions between transient granular flows and macroscopically rough beds and their implications for bulk flow dynamics. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 99(999), 1943–1960.
[26] Wu, Y., Christensen, K.T., 2010. Spatial structure of a turbulent boundary layer with irregular surface roughness. Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 655, 380–418.
[27] Gyr, A., Kinzelbach, W., 2004. Bed forms in turbulent channel flow. Applied Mechanics Reviews. 57(1), 77–93.
[28] Roy, S., Barman, K., Das, V.K., et al., 2020. Experimental investigation of undercut mechanisms of river bank erosion based on 3D turbulence characteristics. Environmental Processes. 7(1), 341–366.
[29] Li, D., Peng, Z., Liu, G., et al., 2023. Flow Structures in Open Channels with Emergent Rigid Vegetation: A Review. Water. 15(23), 4121.
[30] Church, M., 2007. Multiple scales in rivers. In: Habersack, H., Piégay, H., Rinaldi, M. (Eds.). Developments in Earth Surface Processes, Vol. 11: Gravel-Bed Rivers VI: From Process Understanding to River Restoration. Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands. pp. 3–28.
[31] Wu, C., Ullah, M.S., Lu, J., et al., 2016. Formation of point bars through rising and falling flood stages: Evidence from bar morphology, sediment transport and bed shear stress. Sedimentology. 63(6), 1458–1473.
[32] Ivey, G., Winters, K., Koseff, J., 2008. Density stratification, turbulence, but how much mixing? Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. 40(1), 169–184.
[33] Albayrak, I., Lemmin, U., 2011. Secondary currents and corresponding surface velocity patterns in a turbulent open-channel flow over a rough bed. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. 137(11), 1318–1334.
[34] Hami, K., 2021. Turbulence Modeling a Review for Different Used Methods. International Journal of Heat & Technology. 39(1), 227–234.
[35] Siddha, S., Sahu, P., 2022. Impact of climate change on the river ecosystem. In: Madhav, S., Kanhaiya, S., Srivastav, A., et al. (Eds.). Ecological Significance of River Ecosystems. Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands. pp. 79–104.
[36] Tongal, H., Demirel, M.C., Booij, M.J., 2013. Seasonality of low flows and dominant processes in the Rhine River. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment. 27(2), 489–503.
[37] Dufour, S., Rinaldi, M., Piégay, H., et al., 2015. How do river dynamics and human influences affect the landscape pattern of fluvial corridors? Lessons from the Magra River, Central–Northern Italy. Landscape and Urban Planning. 134, 107–118.
[38] Mostafazadeh, R., Azizi, E., 2025. Determination of river flow and sediment regime changes in response to construction of regulating dams: An indicator-based approach. Environmental Earth Sciences. 84(1), 36.
[39] Khaleghi, M.R., 2017. The influence of deforestation and anthropogenic activities on runoff generation. Journal for Forest Science. 63(6), 245–253.
[40] Taylor, K.G., Owens, P.N., 2009. Sediments in urban river basins: A review of sediment-contaminant dynamics in an environmental system conditioned by human activities. Journal of Soils and Sediments. 9(4), 281–303.
[41] Best, J.L., Rhoads, B.L., 2008. Sediment transport, bed morphology and the sedimentology of river channel confluences. In: Rice, S.P., Roy, A.G., Rhoads, B.L. (Eds.). River Confluences, Tributaries and the Fluvial Network. Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: Hoboken, NJ, USA. pp. 45–72.
[42] Aldefae, A.H., Al-Khafaji, R.A., Shamkhi, M.S., et al., 2020. Erosion, sediments transport and riverbank stability: A review. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 901, 012014.
[43] Papanicolaou, A.N., 2001. State of Washington Water Research Center Report, WRR-08: Erosion of Cohesive Streambeds and Banks. State of Washington Water Research Center: Pullman, WA, USA.
[44] La Forgia, G., Tokyay, T., Adduce, C., et al., 2020. Bed shear stress and sediment entrainment potential for breaking of internal solitary waves. Advances in Water Resources. 135, 103475.
[45] Yuan, Y., Wei, H., Zhao, L., et al., 2009. Implications of intermittent turbulent bursts for sediment resuspension in a coastal bottom boundary layer: A field study in the western Yellow Sea, China. Marine Geology. 263(1–4), 87–96.
[46] Das, V.K., Roy, S., Barman, K., et al., 2020. Cohesive river bank erosion mechanism under wave-current interaction: A flume study. Journal of Earth System Science. 129(1), 99.
[47] Arora, S., Patel, H.K., Lade, A.D., et al., 2023. Turbulence structure and bank erosion process in a dredged channel. River Research and Applications. 39(4), 613–628.
[48] Wilkes, M.A., Gittins, J.R., Mathers, K.L., et al., 2019. Physical and biological controls on fine sediment transport and storage in rivers. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water. 6(2), e1331.
[49] Das, V.K., Debnath, K., Sivakumar, B., 2023. On the evolution of turbulent characteristics of an eroding cohesive riverbank. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment. 37, 1371–1393.
[50] Li, Q., Wang, L., Ma, X., et al., 2023. Experimental study of the effects of riverbank vegetation conditions on riverbank erosion processes. Environmental Fluid Mechanics. 23(3), 621–632.
[51] Gasparotto, A., Darby, S.E., Leyland, J., et al., 2023. Water level fluctuations drive bank instability in a hypertidal estuary. Earth Surface Dynamics. 11(3), 343–361.
[52] Zhao, K., Coco, G., Gong, Z., et al., 2022. A review on bank retreat: Mechanisms, observations, and modeling. Reviews of Geophysics. 60(2), e2021RG000761.
[53] Boyer, C., Roy, A.G., Best, J.L., 2006. Dynamics of a river channel confluence with discordant beds: Flow turbulence, bed load sediment transport, and bed morphology. Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface. 111(F4).
[54] Riley, J.D., Rhoads, B.L., 2012. Flow structure and channel morphology at a natural confluent meander bend. Geomorphology. 163–164, 84–98.
[55] Janes, V., Holman, I., Birkinshaw, S., et al., 2018. Improving bank erosion modelling at catchment scale by incorporating temporal and spatial variability. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 43(1), 124–133.
[56] Li, T., Pasternack, G.B., 2023. Applying flow convergence routing to control sediment erosion and deposition locations in a dam's backwater zone. Geomorphology. 440, 108882.
[57] Medeiros, B.M., Cândido, B., Jimenez, P.A., et al., 2025. UAV-based soil water erosion monitoring: Current status and trends. Drones. 9(4), 305.
[58] Sharma, H., Ahmad, Z., 2014. Transverse mixing of pollutants in streams: A review. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering. 41(5), 472–482.
[59] Park, I., 2017. A Two-Dimensional Particle Dispersion Model for Prediction of Pollutant Mixing in Open Channels [PhD Thesis]. Seoul National University: Seoul, Republic of Korea.
[60] Dey, S., 2024. Turbulence in open-channel flows. In Fluvial Hydrodynamics: Hydrodynamic and Sediment Transport Phenomena. Springer: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 145–275.
[61] Yoon, S.-H, 2022. Numerical Modeling of Pollutant Transport at River Confluence with Bed Discordance [PhD Thesis]. Seoul National University: Seoul, Republic of Korea.
[62] Schulz, M., Priegnitz, J., Klasmeier, J., et al., 2012. Effect of bed surface roughness on longitudinal dispersion in artificial open channels. Hydrological Processes. 26(2), 272–280.
[63] Cardenas, M.B., Wilson, J.L., 2007. Dunes, turbulent eddies, and interfacial exchange with permeable sediments. Water Resources Research. 43(8).
[64] Darnault, C., Uyusur, B., 2006. Mixing and transport. Water Environment Research. 80(10), 1709–1742.
[65] Jirka, G.H., Weitbrecht, V., 2005. Mixing models for water quality management in rivers: Continuous and instantaneous pollutant releases. In: Czernuszenko, W., Rowiński, P.M. (Eds.). Water Quality Hazards and Dispersion of Pollutants. Springer: Boston, MA, USA. pp. 1–34.
[66] Fernald, A.G., Wigington Jr., P.J., Landers, D.H., 2001. Transient storage and hyporheic flow along the Willamette River, Oregon: Field measurements and model estimates. Water Resources Research. 37(6), 1681–1694.
[67] Massoudieh, A., Bombardelli, F.A., Ginn, T.R., 2010. A biogeochemical model of contaminant fate and transport in river waters and sediments. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology. 112(1–4), 103–117.
[68] Trinci, G., Harvey, G.L., Henshaw, A.J., et al., 2017. Life in turbulent flows: Interactions between hydrodynamics and aquatic organisms in rivers. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water. 4(3), e1213.
[69] Prants, S., 2023. Transport barriers in geophysical flows: A review. Symmetry. 15(10), 1942.
[70] Muste, M., Fujita, I., Hauet, A., 2008. Large‐scale particle image velocimetry for measurements in riverine environments. Water resources research. 44(4).
[71] Eltner, A., Sardemann, H., Grundmann, J., 2020. Flow velocity and discharge measurement in rivers using terrestrial and unmanned-aerial-vehicle imagery. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 24(3), 1429–1445.
[72] Liu, Y., Chai, Y., Yu, M., et al., 2024. Influences of channel bed morphology on flow structures in continuous curved channels. Frontiers in Environmental Science. 12, 1431021.
Downloads
How to Cite
Zhang, Y. (2026). Geophysical Controls on River Turbulence: Implications for Bank Erosion and Pollutant Dispersion. Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences, 8(8), 287–301. https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v8i8.13382
Issue
Article Type
Review
License
Copyright © 2026 Yifan Zhang
This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.
