From Raw Materials to Recycling: Environmental Challenges and Opportunities of Solid-State Battery Technologies

Authors

  • Dejun Yang

    Zhongke College of Low-Carbon New Energy Technology (New Energy College), Wuwei Vocational and Technical University, Wuwei 733000, China

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v8i8.13447
Received: 22 April 2026 | Revised: 29 June 2026 | Accepted: 7 July 2026 | Published Online: 12 August 2026

Abstract

Solid-state batteries (SSBs) are gaining prominence as a dependable next-generation energy storage solution, offering higher energy density, improved safety, and extended cycle life compared with conventional lithium-ion batteries. There has been a lot of research concentrated on evaluating the electrochemical performance of SSBs. Still, the environmental implications across the entire life cycle, from raw material extraction and manufacturing to operational use and end-of-life management, remain underexplored. This paper provides a comprehensive assessment of the environmental opportunities and challenges associated with SSBs. Critical raw materials, including nickel, lithium, cobalt, and solid electrolytes, are assessed for availability, extraction impacts, and toxicity. Industrial processes, particularly solvent-based processing, high-temperature sintering, and lithium-metal handling, are evaluated for energy consumption, chemical usage, and potential environmental hazards. Operational benefits, such as abridged risk of thermal runaway, extended lifetime, and higher energy efficiency, are analyzed alongside challenges, including interface degradation, dendrite formation, and thermal management. End-of-life considerations, including recycling, circular economy strategies, and material recovery, are discussed with attention to sulfide, oxide, and polymer electrolytes. By integrating life-cycle perspectives and sustainability considerations with technical performance, this paper highlights pathways to environmentally responsible SSB deployment. The conclusions emphasize that future research must balance material innovation, manufacturing efficiency, operational stability, and end-of-life recyclability to realize the full environmental potential of SSB skills.

Keywords:

Solid-State Batteries; Environmental Sustainability; Life-Cycle Assessment; Recycling; Energy Storage

References

[1] Sadiq Okoh, A., Chidi Onuoha, M., 2024. Immediate and future challenges of using electric vehicles for promoting energy efficiency in Africa’s clean energy transition. Global Environmental Change. 84, 102789. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2023.102789

[2] Yu, X., Chen, R., Gan, L., et al., 2023. Battery Safety: From Lithium-Ion to Solid-State Batteries. Engineering. 21, 9–14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2022.06.022

[3] Pavan, U., Karthik, T., Babu, D.R., 2024. A Review on the Advancement of Solid-State Batteries: Potential and Challenges for Green Energy Storage. Energy. 8(11), 1–11.

[4] Acar, C., 2018. A comprehensive evaluation of energy storage options for better sustainability. International Journal of Energy Research. 42(12), 3732–3746. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/er.4102

[5] Chen, S., Wen, K., Fan, J., et al., 2018. Progress and future prospects of high-voltage and high-safety electrolytes in advanced lithium batteries: from liquid to solid electrolytes. Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 6(25), 11631–11663. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C8TA03358G

[6] Wang, Z., Tian, X., Zhao, S., et al., 2025. Toward a Sustainable Future: A Holistic Environmental, Social, and Economic Assessment of Industrial Recycling for All-Solid-State Batteries with Oxide-Based Electrolytes. Environmental Science & Technology. 59(41), 21957–21966. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5c12122

[7] Sasieta-Barrutia, E., Blanco, J., Liendo, G., et al., 2024. Solid electrolyte manufacturing methods and its effect on SSB performance. Chemical Engineering Journal. 501, 157391. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.157391

[8] Schreiber, A., Rosen, M., Waetzig, K., et al., 2023. Oxide ceramic electrolytes for all-solid-state lithium batteries – cost-cutting cell design and environmental impact. Green Chemistry. 25(1), 399–414. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D2GC03368B

[9] Tan, D.H.S., Meng, Y.S., Jang, J., 2022. Scaling up high-energy-density sulfidic solid-state batteries: A lab-to-pilot perspective. Joule. 6(8), 1755–1769. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2022.07.002

[10] Jacob, M., Wissel, K., Clemens, O., 2024. Recycling of solid-state batteries—challenge and opportunity for a circular economy? Materials Futures. 3(1), 012101. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/2752-5724/acfb28

[11] Sawangphruk, M., 2025. Solid-State Batteries: Materials, Technologies, and Future. In: Gupta, R. (ed.). Handbook of Energy Materials. Springer Nature: Singapore. pp. 1–49. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4480-1_9-1

[12] Zhao, Q., Stalin, S., Zhao, C.-Z., et al., 2020. Designing solid-state electrolytes for safe, energy-dense batteries. Nature Reviews Materials. 5(3), 229–252. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-019-0165-5

[13] Machín, A., Morant, C., Márquez, F., 2024. Advancements and Challenges in Solid-State Battery Technology: An In-Depth Review of Solid Electrolytes and Anode Innovations. Batteries. 10(1), 29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10010029

[14] Machín, A., Cotto, M.C., Díaz, F., et al., 2024. Environmental Aspects and Recycling of Solid-State Batteries: A Comprehensive Review. Batteries. 10(7), 255. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070255

[15] He, M., Chartouni, D., Landmann, D., et al., 2024. Safety Aspects of Stationary Battery Energy Storage Systems. Batteries. 10(12), 418. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10120418

[16] Baum, Z.J., Bird, R.E., Yu, X., et al., 2022. Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling─Overview of Techniques and Trends. ACS Energy Letters. 7(2), 712–719. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.1c02602

[17] Melin, H.E., Rajaeifar, M.A., Ku, A.Y., et al., 2021. Global implications of the EU battery regulation. Science. 373(6553), 384–387. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abh1416

[18] Shukla, S., Anand, G., Agarwal, S., 2025. Advancements in Solid-State Batteries for Electric Vehicles: A Comprehensive Review. International Journal on Smart & Sustainable Intelligent Computing. 2(2), 1–14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.63503/j.ijssic.2025.88

[19] Buchheit, A., Scharf, F., Krämer, S., et al., 2025. Enabling high mass loadings for polymer based all solid-state batteries with temperature assisted solvent-free vacuum melt infiltration. Energy Storage Materials. 83, 104670. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2025.104670

[20] Eskelä, M., 2025. Corporate Social Responsibility in Cobalt Mining Supply Chains: Case: Democratic Republic of Congo [Bachelor’s Thesis]. University of Vaasa: Vaasa, Finland.

[21] Mudd, G.M., Jowitt, S.M., 2022. The New Century for Nickel Resources, Reserves, and Mining: Reassessing the Sustainability of the Devil’s Metal. Economic Geology. 117(8), 1961–1983. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.4950

[22] Manthiram, A., 2020. A reflection on lithium-ion battery cathode chemistry. Nature Communications. 11(1), 1550. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15355-0

[23] Machín, A., Márquez, F., 2023. The Next Frontier in Energy Storage: A Game-Changing Guide to Advances in Solid-State Battery Cathodes. Batteries. 10(1), 13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10010013

[24] Zhang, Z., Han, W.-Q., 2024. From Liquid to Solid-State Lithium Metal Batteries: Fundamental Issues and Recent Developments. Nano-Micro Letters. 16(1), 24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-023-01234-y

[25] Kamali, A.R., Fray, D.J., 2010. Review on carbon and silicon based materials as anode materials for lithium ion batteries. Journal of New Materials for Electrochemical Systems. 13(2), 147–160.

[26] Karabelli, D., Birke, K.P., Weeber, M., 2021. A performance and cost overview of selected solid-state electrolytes: race between polymer electrolytes and inorganic sulfide electrolytes. Batteries. 7(1), 18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7010018

[27] Khokhar, W.A., Rafiq, M., Aleem, A.R., et al., 2024. Recent Advancements in the Interfacial Stability of Garnet Solid Electrolytes and Design Strategies for Solid-State Lithium Batteries: A Review. Energy & Fuels. 38(22), 21674–21700. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.4c02715

[28] Yow, Z.F., 2016. Engineering the Performance and Stability of Garnet-Related Lithium Lanthanum Zirconium Oxide (Li7La3Zr2O12) in All-Solid-State Lithium Batteries [PhD Thesis]. National University of Singapore: Singapore.

[29] Xue, Z., He, D., Xie, X., 2015. Poly(ethylene oxide)-based electrolytes for lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 3(38), 19218–19253. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C5TA03471J

[30] Mitropetros, A., 2025. The Role of Electric Vehicles in the Geopolitics of Energy [Master’s Thesis]. University of Piraeus: Piraeus, Greece.

[31] Schenker, V., Bayer, P., Oberschelp, C., et al., 2024. Is lithium from geothermal brines the sustainable solution for Li-ion batteries? Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 199, 114456. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114456

[32] Koech, A.K., Mwandila, G., Mulolani, F., et al., 2024. Lithium-ion battery fundamentals and exploration of cathode materials: A review. South African Journal of Chemical Engineering. 50, 321–339. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajce.2024.09.008

[33] Zhu, Q., Wang, Z., Qiu, L., 2026. Advancements in Recycling and Regeneration Technologies for Solid‐State Batteries: Challenges, Strategies, and Directions. Batteries & Supercaps. 9(5), e70248. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/batt.70248

[34] Murdock, B.E., Toghill, K.E., Tapia‐Ruiz, N., 2021. A Perspective on the Sustainability of Cathode Materials used in Lithium‐Ion Batteries. Advanced Energy Materials. 11(39), 2102028. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202102028

[35] Liu, C., Lowenstein, T.K., Wang, A., et al., 2023. Brine: Genesis and Sustainable Resource Recovery Worldwide. Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 48(1), 371–394. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-112621-094745

[36] Porzio, J., Scown, C.D., 2021. Life‐Cycle Assessment Considerations for Batteries and Battery Materials. Advanced Energy Materials. 11(33), 2100771. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202100771

[37] Kali, R., Mukhopadhyay, A., 2014. Spark plasma sintered/synthesized dense and nanostructured materials for solid-state Li-ion batteries: Overview and perspective. Journal of Power Sources. 247, 920–931. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.09.010

[38] Balaish, M., Kim, K.J., Chu, H., et al., 2025. Emerging processing guidelines for solid electrolytes in the era of oxide-based solid-state batteries. Chemical Society Reviews. 54(19), 8925–9007. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D5CS00358J

[39] Sadan, M.K., Haridas, A.K., 2025. Solvent‐free Electrode Fabrication for Next‐generation Batteries: Inception or an Endgame? Chemistry – A European Journal. 31(39), e202501487. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.202501487

[40] Suci, W.G., Aliwarga, H.K. (Kiwi), Azinuddin, Y.R., et al., 2022. Review of various sulfide electrolyte types for solid-state lithium-ion batteries. Open Engineering. 12(1), 409–423. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0043

[41] Wang, L., Li, X., Yang, W., 2010. Enhancement of electrochemical properties of hot-pressed poly(ethylene oxide)-based nanocomposite polymer electrolyte films for all-solid-state lithium polymer batteries. Electrochimica Acta. 55(6), 1895–1899. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2009.11.003

[42] Ali, W., Ko, K.W., Ahmed, F., et al., 2025. A comprehensive review on coating techniques to suppress the dendrites issue and improve the performance of lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Coatings Technology and Research. 22(4), 1433–1450. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-024-01050-y

[43] Zhu, Y., Zhang, Y., Das, P., et al., 2021. Recent Advances in Interface Engineering and Architecture Design of Air-Stable and Water-Resistant Lithium Metal Anodes. Energy & Fuels. 35(16), 12902–12920. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.1c01904

[44] Chen, A., Qu, C., Shi, Y., et al., 2020. Manufacturing Strategies for Solid Electrolyte in Batteries. Frontiers in Energy Research. 8, 571440. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2020.571440

[45] Njema, G.G., Ouma, R.B.O., Kibet, J.K., 2024. A Review on the Recent Advances in Battery Development and Energy Storage Technologies. Journal of Renewable Energy. 2024(1), 1–35. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/2329261

[46] Schnell, J., Tietz, F., Singer, C., et al., 2019. Prospects of production technologies and manufacturing costs of oxide-based all-solid-state lithium batteries. Energy & Environmental Science. 12(6), 1818–1833. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C8EE02692K

[47] Yang, S., Jiang, F., Hu, J., et al., 2023. Life cycle safety issues of lithium metal batteries: A perspective. Electron. 1(2), e8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/elt2.8

[48] Liu, Y., Sun, Q., Wang, D., et al., 2018. Development of the cold sintering process and its application in solid-state lithium batteries. Journal of Power Sources. 393, 193–203. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.05.015

[49] Dar, A.A., Chen, Z., Zhang, G., et al., 2025. Sustainable Extraction of Critical Minerals from Waste Batteries: A Green Solvent Approach in Resource Recovery. Batteries. 11(2), 51. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020051

[50] De, A., Ramasubramian, B., Ramakrishna, S., et al., 2024. Advances in Additive Manufacturing Techniques for Electrochemical Energy Storage. Advanced Materials Technologies. 9(4), 2301439. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202301439

[51] Liang, Y., Long, H., Huang, Z., et al., 2026. Solvent‐Free Bonding Mechanisms and Microstructure Engineering in Dry Electrode Technology for Lithium‐Ion Batteries. Advanced Functional Materials. 36(14), e18619. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202518619

[52] Schmaltz, T., Hartmann, F., Wicke, T., et al., 2023. A Roadmap for Solid‐State Batteries. Advanced Energy Materials. 13(43), 2301886. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202301886

[53] Cheng, X.-B., Zhao, C.-Z., Yao, Y.-X., et al., 2019. Recent Advances in Energy Chemistry between Solid-State Electrolyte and Safe Lithium-Metal Anodes. Chem. 5(1), 74–96. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chempr.2018.12.002

[54] Cerdas, F., Titscher, P., Bognar, N., et al., 2018. Exploring the Effect of Increased Energy Density on the Environmental Impacts of Traction Batteries: A Comparison of Energy Optimized Lithium-Ion and Lithium-Sulfur Batteries for Mobility Applications. Energies. 11(1), 150. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en11010150

[55] Khan, F.M.N.U., Rasul, M.G., Sayem, A.S.M., et al., 2023. Maximizing energy density of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles: A critical review. Energy Reports. 9, 11–21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2023.08.069

[56] Han, L., Wang, L., Chen, Z., et al., 2023. Incombustible Polymer Electrolyte Boosting Safety of Solid‐State Lithium Batteries: A Review. Advanced Functional Materials. 33(32), 2300892. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202300892

[57] Trevizan, R.D., Obert, J., De Angelis, V., et al., 2022. Cyberphysical Security of Grid Battery Energy Storage Systems. IEEE Access. 10, 59675–59722. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3178987

[58] Yang, R., Xie, Y., Li, K., et al., 2024. Thermal characteristics of solid-state battery and its thermal management system based on flat heat pipe. Applied Thermal Engineering. 252, 123575. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2024.123575

[59] Li, Z., Ren, Y., Guo, X., 2023. Polymer-based electrolytes for solid-state lithium batteries with a wide operating temperature range. Materials Chemistry Frontiers. 7(24), 6305–6317. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D3QM00759F

[60] Han, Y., Liu, B., Xiao, Z., et al., 2021. Interface issues of lithium metal anode for high-energy batteries: Challenges, strategies, and perspectives. InfoMat. 3(2), 155–174. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/inf2.12166

[61] Li, L., Liu, W., Dong, H., et al., 2021. Surface and Interface Engineering of Nanoarrays toward Advanced Electrodes and Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices. Advanced Materials. 33(13), 2004959. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202004959

[62] Liao, Y., Zhang, H., Peng, Y., et al., 2024. Electrolyte Degradation During Aging Process of Lithium‐Ion Batteries: Mechanisms, Characterization, and Quantitative Analysis. Advanced Energy Materials. 14(18), 2304295. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202304295

[63] Mandade, P., Weil, M., Baumann, M., et al., 2023. Environmental life cycle assessment of emerging solid-state batteries: A review. Chemical Engineering Journal Advances. 13, 100439. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceja.2022.100439

[64] Meng, N., Ye, Y., Yang, Z., et al., 2023. Developing Single‐Ion Conductive Polymer Electrolytes for High‐Energy‐Density Solid State Batteries. Advanced Functional Materials. 33(43), 2305072. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202305072

[65] Fayaz, H., Afzal, A., Samee, A.D.M., et al., 2022. Optimization of Thermal and Structural Design in Lithium-Ion Batteries to Obtain Energy Efficient Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS): A Critical Review. Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering. 29(1), 129–194. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11831-021-09571-0

[66] Boretti, A., 2025. Advanced Battery Thermal Management: A Review of Materials, Cooling Systems, and Intelligent Control for Safety and Performance. Energy Storage. 7(7), e70273. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/est2.70273

[67] Audu, G.A., Mafo, A.R., Jegede, R.E., et al., 2025. Advances in energy storage technologies for renewable energy systems: bridging intermittency and sustainable integration. Eurasian Journal of Physics and Functional Materials. 9(2), 79–96.

[68] Zhang, Y., Lu, Y., Jin, J., et al., 2024. Electrolyte Design for Lithium‐Ion Batteries for Extreme Temperature Applications. Advanced Materials. 36(13), 2308484. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202308484

[69] Kabir, M.M., Demirocak, D.E., 2017. Degradation mechanisms in Li-ion batteries: a state-of-the-art review: Degradation Mechanisms in Li-ion Batteries: A State-of-the-Art Review. International Journal of Energy Research. 41(14), 1963–1986. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/er.3762

[70] Liu, G., Wan, W., Nie, Q., et al., 2024. Controllable long-term lithium replenishment for enhancing energy density and cycle life of lithium-ion batteries. Energy & Environmental Science. 17(3), 1163–1174. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D3EE03740A

[71] Rahman, M.S., Lu, H., 2024. Enhancing Remaining Useful Life in Solid-State Batteries: Smart Battery Management System Strategies. In Proceedings of the 2024 IISE Annual Conference & Expo, Montreal, QC, Canada, 18–21 May 2024; pp. 1832–1837. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21872/2024IISE_8085

[72] Lee, S.-Y., Rawal, J., Lee, J., et al., 2025. Solid-State Electrolytes and Their Interfacial Properties: Implications for Solid-State Lithium Batteries. Electrochemical Energy Reviews. 8(1), 9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41918-025-00242-3

[73] Zhang, J.-G., Xu, W., Xiao, J., et al., 2020. Lithium Metal Anodes with Nonaqueous Electrolytes. Chemical Reviews. 120(24), 13312–13348. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00275

[74] Yin, H., Xing, P., 2019. Pyrometallurgical Routes for the Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries. In: An, L. (ed.). Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries. Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 57–83. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31834-5_3

[75] Yao, Y., Zhu, M., Zhao, Z., et al., 2018. Hydrometallurgical Processes for Recycling Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Critical Review. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. 6(11), 13611–13627. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b03545

[76] Niu, B., Xu, Z., Xiao, J., et al., 2023. Recycling Hazardous and Valuable Electrolyte in Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: Urgency, Progress, Challenge, and Viable Approach. Chemical Reviews. 123(13), 8718–8735. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00174

[77] Matutu, B., 2025. Understanding Lithium-ion Battery Recycling: A Document Analysis of EU Battery Recycling Strategy [Master’s Thesis]. Lund University: Lund, Sweden.

[78] Ali, A., Al Bahrani, M., Ahmed, S., et al., 2025. Sustainable Recycling of End-of-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries: EV Battery Recycling Frameworks in China and the USA. Recycling. 10(2), 68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling10020068

[79] Awewomom, J., Dzeble, F., Takyi, Y.D., et al., 2024. Addressing global environmental pollution using environmental control techniques: a focus on environmental policy and preventive environmental management. Discover Environment. 2(1), 21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-024-00048-y

[80] Liu, A., Hu, G., Wu, Y., et al., 2024. Life cycle environmental impacts of pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical recovery processes for spent lithium-ion batteries: present and future perspectives. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy. 26(2), 381–400. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-023-02640-x

[81] Li, X., Hoseyni, S.M., Cordiner, J., 2025. Process Safety Challenges in Lithium-ion Battery Recycling. International Journal of Reliability, Risk and Safety: Theory and Application. 8(2), 22–41.

[82] Ferrari, S., Falco, M., Muñoz‐García, A.B., et al., 2021. Solid‐State Post Li Metal Ion Batteries: A Sustainable Forthcoming Reality? Advanced Energy Materials. 11(43), 2100785. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202100785

[83] Thompson, D.L., Hartley, J.M., Lambert, S.M., et al., 2020. The importance of design in lithium ion battery recycling – a critical review. Green Chemistry. 22(22), 7585–7603. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D0GC02745F

[84] Choi, J.-W., Shim, H.-W., Kim, H.-I., et al., 2025. Toward closed-loop hydrometallurgy: a critical review of wastewater reuse strategies for end-of-life LiFePO4 battery recycling. Green Chemistry. 27(35), 10423–10443. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D5GC02987B

[85] Troy, S., Schreiber, A., Reppert, T., et al., 2016. Life Cycle Assessment and resource analysis of all-solid-state batteries. Applied Energy. 169, 757–767. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.02.064

Downloads

How to Cite

Yang, D. (2026). From Raw Materials to Recycling: Environmental Challenges and Opportunities of Solid-State Battery Technologies. Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences, 8(8), 414–435. https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v8i8.13447

Issue

Vol. 8 , Iss. 8 (August 2026): In Progress

Article Type

Review

License

Copyright © 2026 Dejun Yang

Creative Commons License

This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.

Crossref
Scopus
Google Scholar
Europe PMC