Reimagining Oil Spill Response: Innovations in Detection, Risk Assessment, and Sustainable Remediation Pathways

Authors

  • Dazhi Zhang

    Henan Province First Geological Exploration Institute Co., Ltd., Zhengzhou 450000, China; Henan Provincial Natural Resources Science and Technology Innovation Center (Dynamic Monitoring and Early Warning Technology for Geological Environment), Zhengzhou 450000, China
  • Gaimin Li

    Henan Province First Geological Exploration Institute Co., Ltd., Zhengzhou 450000, China; Henan Provincial Natural Resources Science and Technology Innovation Center (Dynamic Monitoring and Early Warning Technology for Geological Environment), Zhengzhou 450000, China
  • Peiyuan Liu

    Henan Province First Geological Exploration Institute Co., Ltd., Zhengzhou 450000, China; Henan Provincial Natural Resources Science and Technology Innovation Center (Dynamic Monitoring and Early Warning Technology for Geological Environment), Zhengzhou 450000, China
  • Wenli Tie

    Henan Province First Geological Exploration Institute Co., Ltd., Zhengzhou 450000, China; Henan Provincial Natural Resources Science and Technology Innovation Center (Dynamic Monitoring and Early Warning Technology for Geological Environment), Zhengzhou 450000, China
  • Zhiyuan Zhao

    Henan Province First Geological Exploration Institute Co., Ltd., Zhengzhou 450000, China
  • Ruibing Yi

    Henan Province First Geological Exploration Institute Co., Ltd., Zhengzhou 450000, China
  • Xianpei Guo

    Henan Province First Geological Exploration Institute Co., Ltd., Zhengzhou 450000, China;Henan Provincial Natural Resources Science and Technology Innovation Center (Dynamic Monitoring and Early Warning Technology for Geological Environment), Zhengzhou 450000, China

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v8i8.13552
Received: 25 May 2026 | Revised: 26 June 2026 | Accepted: 1 July 2026 | Published Online: 12 August 2026

Abstract

A leaking refined-oil pipeline is a significant, but frequently overlooked, source of soil and groundwater contamination. The leakage from underground pipelines can be undetected for extended periods and can travel vertically through the vadose zone and horizontally in an aquifer, where gasoline, diesel, and associated petroleum hydrocarbons may accumulate. This review aims to compile existing understanding of detecting, migrating, assessing risk, and remediating a refined-oil pipeline contamination in a coupled soil groundwater system. Special attention is devoted to some of the most important pollutants, such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, methyl tert-butyl ether, volatile petroleum hydrocarbons, and extractable petroleum hydrocarbons. The discussion highlights the fact that contamination in the upper layers of soil may not provide a reliable assessment of subsurface contamination, since unweathered residual petroleum can cause a prolonged secondary source of contamination to groundwater plumes. Contaminant transport and remediation feasibility are highly influenced by hydrogeological conditions, such as soil texture, fractures, loess structure, aquifer properties, and groundwater flow direction. While conventional remediation technologies can deliver quick risk reduction, integrated approaches that combine bioremediation, monitored natural attenuation, nature-based solutions, emerging treatment technologies, and long-term monitoring are increasingly required to ensure sustainable management. A representative pipeline leakage case (Luoyang–Zhumadian) is used throughout to illustrate key concepts, but the review synthesizes findings from multiple studies. The article proposes a proactive approach, one that moves beyond a reactive cleanup model to adaptive and predictive management, using intelligent monitoring, contaminant transport modelling, source-pathway-receptor analysis, and risk-based decision-making. The integrated approach can enhance protection of the environment, the effectiveness of remediation, and the security of groundwater resources in areas impacted by refined-oil pipeline spills.

Keywords:

Refined-Oil Pipeline Leakage; Soil-Groundwater Contamination; Petroleum Hydrocarbons; Groundwater Plume; Sustainable Remediation

References

[1] Druetta, P., Frabotta, R., Cavallo, G.L., 2024. Transport by Pipelines and Its Optimization. Springer: Cham, Switzerland.

[2] Song, Q., Zhou, B., Song, Y., et al., 2025. Microbial community dynamics and bioremediation strategies for petroleum contamination in an in-service oil Depot, middle-lower Yellow River Basin. Frontiers in Microbiology. 16, 1544233.

[3] Zhihuan, F., 2025. Pipeline Transportation: Energy Arteries Spanning Thousands of Miles. In: Lu, H. (Ed.). A Brief History of Transportation in China. Springer: Singapore. pp. 461–483.

[4] Raney, J.M., 2024. Assessing the Efficacy of Hydraulic Pumping as a Remediation Method of a Subsurface Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid Spill in Arroyo Grande, California [Master’s Thesis]. California Polytechnic State University: San Luis Obispo, CA, USA.

[5] Potter, T.L., 2019. Analysis of petroleum contaminated soil and water: An overview. In: Calabrese, E.J., Kostecki, P.T. (Eds.). Principles and Practices for Petroleum Contaminated Soils. Routledge: New York, NY, USA. pp. 1–14.

[6] Sharafi, S., Salehi, F., 2025. Comprehensive assessment of heavy metal (HMs) contamination and associated health risks in agricultural soils and groundwater proximal to industrial sites. Scientific Reports. 15(1), 7518.

[7] Otegui, J.L., Cirimello, P., Carfi, G., 2026. Third-party damage in a low-risk area: The case of an oil pipeline. Engineering Failure Analysis. 183, 110251.

[8] Apergis, N., Mustafa, G., Dastidar, S.G., 2021. An analysis of the impact of unconventional oil and gas activities on public health: New evidence across Oklahoma counties. Energy Economics. 97, 105223.

[9] Sibe, L., Orij, O., Wonodi, A., 2026. Health Risk Assessment of Children and Adults Exposed to Hydrocarbon Polluted Soils and Groundwater in K-Dere and Kpor Communities, Ogoni, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Research in Biosciences. 8(1), 71–94.

[10] Sae-Ju, J., Chotpantarat, S., Thitimakorn, T., 2020. Hydrochemical, geophysical and multivariate statistical investigation of the seawater intrusion in the coastal aquifer at Phetchaburi Province, Thailand. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 191, 104165.

[11] Du, M., Li, M., Liu, W., et al., 2025. Field and laboratory study on the distribution, fate and transport of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the loess porous medium at a refinery polluted site: Understanding the soil-groundwater interface. Organic Geochemistry. 200, 104902.

[12] Guo, W., Wang, X., Liu, S., et al., 2022. Long-term petroleum hydrocarbons pollution after a coastal oil spill. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 10(10), 1380.

[13] Wang, M., 2024. Migration rules of petroleum pollutants in water and soil: A review. Petroleum Science and Technology. 42(25), 4281–4296.

[14] Bala, B., Tar, U.A., 2020. The giant of Africa? Explaining the Nigerian governance, security, and development paradox. In: Omeje, K. (Ed.). The Governance, Security and Development Nexus: Africa Rising. Palgrave Macmillan: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 315–339.

[15] Sallal, A.K., 2026. Oil Spill Cleanup in the Marine Environment: How to Use Current Technology to Restore Oil Spills. Water Environment Research. 98(4), e70376.

[16] Zhang, Y., Sun, Y., Yan, Y., et al., 2026. Research Status, Challenges and Future Perspectives of Geological Hazard Monitoring Methods in Mining Areas. Remote Sensing. 18(9), 1333.

[17] Hassani, S., Dackermann, U., 2023. A systematic review of advanced sensor technologies for non-destructive testing and structural health monitoring. Sensors. 23(4), 2204.

[18] Mehla, S., Paul, A.R., Periasamy, S., et al., 2026. AM Supported Sensor Technologies in Critical Minerals Exploration, Sorting, and Gas Sensing. In: Bhargava, K., Brandt, S., Batterham, M., et al. (Eds.). Additive Manufacturing for Critical Minerals. Springer: Singapore. pp. 134–167.

[19] Koohmishi, M., Kaewunruen, S., Chang, L., et al., 2026. State-of-the-art technologies integrated with InSAR: A focus on structural health monitoring of railway infrastructure. Structural Control and Health Monitoring. 2026(1), 5526499.

[20] Ge, L., Zhang, C., Tian, G., et al., 2021. Current trends and perspectives of detection and location for buried non-metallic pipelines. Chinese Journal of Mechanical Engineering. 34(1), 97.

[21] Yan, M., Li, J., Huang, X., et al., 2025. Comprehensive Review of Research on Buried Gas Pipeline Leakage. Journal of Pipeline Systems Engineering and Practice. 16(4), 03125003.

[22] Li, B., Wu, P., Yang, Z., et al., 2025. Mechanism of landfill leakage induced by surface subsidence and cracking during deep mining and the migration law of pollutants in groundwater. International Journal of Geomechanics. 25(9), 04025196.

[23] Lu, S., Yang, F., Liu, L., et al., 2025. Design and feasibility of acid gas reinjection with corrosion mitigation: A case study from Tahe Oilfield, China. Results in Engineering. 25, 104576.

[24] Eissa, B., Watson, M., Arbad, N., et al., 2025. A Review of Key Challenges and Evaluation of Well Integrity in CO2 Storage: Insights from Texas Potential CCS Fields. Sustainability. 17(13), 5911.

[25] Zheng, J., Wang, C., Liang, Y., et al., 2022. Deeppipe: A deep-learning method for anomaly detection of multi-product pipelines. Energy. 259, 125025.

[26] Chu, X., Chen, P., Xu, Y., et al., 2026. Application of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy in Pipeline Transportation of Refined Petroleum Products. In Near Infrared Spectroscopy in Petroleum Refinery and Chemical Industry. Springer: Singapore. pp. 481–493.

[27] Wu, Y., Gao, L., Chai, J., et al., 2024. Overview of health-monitoring technology for long-distance transportation pipeline and progress in DAS technology application. Sensors. 24(2), 413.

[28] Qiu, C., Xiao, H., Zheng, Y., et al., 2025. Research on VOCs Composition Emissions in the Oil Transport Link Based on Multi-source Detection Data. In Proceedings of the 2025 International Conference on Intelligent Transportation and Future Mobility (ITFM2025), Guilin, China, 11–13 April 2025.

[29] Devatha, C., Vishnu Vishal, A., Purna Chandra Rao, J., 2019. Investigation of physical and chemical characteristics on soil due to crude oil contamination and its remediation. Applied Water Science. 9(4), 89.

[30] Slater, L., Binley, A., 2021. Advancing hydrological process understanding from long‐term resistivity monitoring systems. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water. 8(3), e1513.

[31] Arkoprovo, B., Adarsa, J., Animesh, M., 2013. Application of remote sensing, GIS and MIF technique for elucidation of groundwater potential zones from a part of Orissa coastal tract, Eastern India. Research Journal of Recent Sciences. 2(11), 42–49.

[32] Mahmoud, A.A., Hasan, R., 2025. A Comprehensive Survey on Pipeline Monitoring Technologies: Advancements, Challenges, Market Opportunities and Future Directions. Journal of Pipeline Science and Engineering. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpse.2025.100353

[33] Wu, T., Chen, Y., Deng, Z., et al., 2023. Oil pipeline leakage monitoring developments in China. Journal of Pipeline Science and Engineering. 3(4), 100129.

[34] Wei, Y., Chen, Y., Cao, X., et al., 2024. A critical review of groundwater table fluctuation: Formation, effects on multifields, and contaminant behaviors in a soil and aquifer system. Environmental Science & Technology. 58(5), 2185–2203.

[35] Zhao, Y., Song, J., Cheng, K., et al., 2024. Migration and remediation of typical contaminants in soil and groundwater: A state of art review. Land Degradation & Development. 35(8), 2700–2715.

[36] Zeng, J., Tabelin, C.B., Gao, W., et al., 2023. Heterogeneous distributions of heavy metals in the soil-groundwater system empowers the knowledge of the pollution migration at a smelting site. Chemical Engineering Journal. 454, 140307.

[37] Xia, J., Wang, J., Zhang, L., et al., 2022. Migration and transformation of soil mercury in a karst region of southwest China: Implications for groundwater contamination. Water Research. 226, 119271.

[38] Jiao, J., Befus, K.M., Zhang, Y., 2024. Soil contaminants pose delayed but pervasive threat to shallow groundwater. Journal of Hydrology. 634, 130994.

[39] Bonnière, A., Khaska, S., Le Gal La Salle, C., et al., 2024. Long-term impact of wastewater effluent discharge on groundwater: Identification of contaminant plume by geochemical, isotopic, and organic tracers' approach. Water Research. 257, 121637.

[40] Hamed, Y., Houda, B., Ahmed, M., et al., 2023. North Western Sahara aquifer system hydrothermal and petroleum reservoirs dynamics: A comprehensive overview. Arabian Journal of Geosciences. 16(4), 247.

[41] Attobrah, B.N., Gyasi, E.K., Amoateng, E.A., et al., 2026. Hydrogeological Controls on Groundwater Contamination from Petroleum Operations: Contaminant Migration, Aquifer Vulnerability, and Assessment Methods. Interdisciplinary Studies on Applied Science. 3(1), 66–75.

[42] Adeniran, M.A., Oladunjoye, M.A., Doro, K.O., 2023. Soil and groundwater contamination by crude oil spillage: A review and implications for remediation projects in Nigeria. Frontiers in Environmental Science. 11, 1137496.

[43] Sheng, Y., Jiang, W., Zhang, M., 2023. Mobilization, Speciation, and Transformation of Organic and Inorganic Contaminants in Soil–Groundwater Ecosystems. Applied Sciences. 13(20), 11454.

[44] Kaushal, S.S., Mayer, P.M., Vidon, P.G., et al., 2014. Land use and climate variability amplify carbon, nutrient, and contaminant pulses: A review with management implications. Journal of the American Water Resources Association. 50(3), 585–614.

[45] Grimm, N.B., Foster, D., Groffman, P., et al., 2008. The changing landscape: Ecosystem responses to urbanization and pollution across climatic and societal gradients. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 6(5), 264–272.

[46] Oyebamiji, A.R., Hoque, M.A., Whitworth, M., 2025. Regional assessment of groundwater contamination risk from crude oil spillages in the Niger Delta: A novel application of the source-pathway-receptor model. Earth Systems and Environment. 9, 117–133.

[47] Brusseau, M.L, 2019. Soil and groundwater remediation. In: Brusseau, M.L., Pepper, I.L., Gerba, C.P. (Eds.). Environmental and Pollution Science. Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

[48] Mao, X., Zhang, S., Wang, S., et al., 2023. Evaluation of human health risks associated with groundwater contamination and groundwater pollution prediction in a landfill and surrounding area in Kaifeng City, China. Water. 15(4), 723.

[49] Ghobakhloo, S., Khoshakhlagh, A.H., Alwan, N., et al., 2024. Health risk assessment of exposure to BTEX and PAH compounds in workers of burnt oil recycling factory: Simulation using Monte Carlo method. Environmental Processes. 11(3), 37.

[50] Muthwa, B., 2020. An Overview of the Occurrence, Evaluation and Remediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contamination in South Africa: Case Studies of Contamination from Filling Stations in Gauteng. University of the Witwatersrand: Johannesburg, South Africa.

[51] Shi, P., Xiao, J., Wang, Y., et al., 2014. Assessment of ecological and human health risks of heavy metal contamination in agriculture soils disturbed by pipeline construction. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 11(3), 2504–2520.

[52] Ugochukwu, U.C., Ochonogor, A., Jidere, C.M., et al., 2018. Exposure risks to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by humans and livestock (cattle) due to hydrocarbon spill from petroleum products in Niger-delta wetland. Environment International. 115, 38–47.

[53] Chen, Y., 2024. Risk and Reliability Analysis for Oil and Gas Pipelines Using Data-Driven Methods [PhD Thesis]. University of Alberta: Edmonton, AB, Canada.

[54] Zhang, B., Zhu, Z., Jing, L., et al., 2013. Pilot-Scale Demonstration of Biosurfactant-Enhanced In-Situ Bioremediation of a Contaminated Site in Newfoundland and Labrador. The Harris Centre: Folsom, CA, USA.

[55] Makanjuola, B.C., 2019. Assessment of Air, Water Quality and Health Impact on the Environment of Petrol Stations in Ado Local Government Area of Ekiti State, Nigeria [PhD Thesis]. Kwara State University: Ilorin, Nigeria.

[56] Haimes, Y.Y., 2008. Risk Modeling, Assessment, and Management. John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA.

[57] Aven, T., 2013. On how to deal with deep uncertainties in a risk assessment and management context. Risk Analysis. 33(12), 2082–2091.

[58] National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2016. Spills of Diluted Bitumen from Pipelines: A Comparative Study of Environmental Fate, Effects, and Response. National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA.

[59] Ragothaman, A., Anderson, W.A., 2017. Air quality impacts of petroleum refining and petrochemical industries. Environments. 4(3), 66.

[60] Lu, H., Xi, D., Qin, G., 2023. Environmental risk of oil pipeline accidents. Science of the Total Environment. 874, 162386.

[61] Zhu, X., Venosa, A.D., Suidan, M.T., et al., 2001. Guidelines for the Bioremediation of Marine Shorelines and Freshwater Wetlands. US Environmental Protection Agency: Cincinnati, OH, USA.

[62] Zhang, Z., Du, Y., Lyu, Y., et al., 2025. An integrated mathematical modeling approach for reducing water footprint rate and carbon footprint intensity of Hanjiang River Ecological Economic Belt in China. Sustainable Water Resources Management. 11(6), 127.

[63] Yang, H., Shi, J., Lü, C., et al., 2026. Evaluation of water-economy-ecology system development level and coupling coordination degree: A case study of China’s central plains urban agglomeration. Scientific Reports. 16(1), 14317.

[64] Wang, K., Zhang, L., Zhang, L., et al., 2020. Coupling coordination assessment on sponge city construction and its spatial pattern in Henan province, China. Water. 12(12), 3482.

[65] Yang, Y., Chen, J., Li, Z., et al., 2025. Coupling coordination of agricultural water-economy systems in China: Evidence from high-stress hydrological zones in a major grain-producing province. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. 9, 1608329.

[66] Ndimele, P.E., Saba, A.O., Ojo, D.O., et al., 2018. Remediation of crude oil spillage. In: Ndimele, P.E. (Ed.). The Political Ecology of Oil and Gas Activities in the Nigerian Aquatic Ecosystem. Academic Press: London, UK. pp. 369–384.

[67] Lee, J.-H., Woo, H.J., Jeong, K.-S., 2018. Removal of non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) from TPH-saturated sandy aquifer sediments using in situ air sparging combined with soil vapor extraction. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A. 53(14), 1253–1266.

[68] Aelion, C.M., Kirtland, B.C., 2000. Physical versus biological hydrocarbon removal during air sparging and soil vapor extraction. Environmental Science & Technology. 34(15), 3167–3173.

[69] Di Stasio, L., Gentile, A., Tangredi, D.N., et al., 2025. Urban Phytoremediation: A Nature-Based Solution for Environmental Reclamation and Sustainability. Plants. 14(13), 2057.

[70] Alazaiza, M.Y., Albahnasawi, A., Ali, G.A., et al., 2021. Recent advances of nanoremediation technologies for soil and groundwater remediation: A review. Water. 13(16), 2186.

[71] Sharma, S., Shaikh, S., Mohana, S., et al., 2024. Current trends in bioremediation and bio-integrated treatment of petroleum hydrocarbons. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 31(46), 57397–57416.

[72] Sulayman, H.O., 2019. Bioremediation of Spent Engine Oil in Some Selected Contaminated Soils [Master’s Thesis]. Kwara State University: Ilorin, Nigeria.

[73] Adebajo, S.O., Akintokun, A.K., Ojo, A.E., et al., 2019. Biosurfactant production by rhizospheric bacteria isolated from biochar amended soil using different extraction solvents. Applied Environmental Research. 41(3), 72–82.

[74] Afzal, M., Yousaf, S., Reichenauer, T.G., et al., 2013. Ecology of alkane‐degrading bacteria and their interaction with the plant. In: de Bruijn, F.J. (Ed.). Molecular Microbial Ecology of the Rhizosphere, Vol. 1. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: Hoboken, NJ, USA. pp. 975–989.

[75] Uba, B., Okoye, E.L., Dokubo, C.U., et al., 2018. Biostimulatory effect of organic and inorganic nutrients on soil biological indicators in diesel contaminated soil. Journal of Bioscience and Biotechnology. 3(6), 121–135.

[76] Vik, E., Bardos, P., Brogan, J., et al., 2001. Towards a framework for selecting remediation technologies for contaminated sites. Land Contamination and Reclamation. 9(1), 119–127.

[77] Zhang, M., Yang, S., Zhang, Z., et al., 2023. Development and application of an integrated site remediation technology mix method based on site contaminant distribution characteristics. Applied Sciences. 13(19), 11076.

[78] Suprenand, P.M., Hoover, C., Ainsworth, C.H., et al., 2019. Preparing for the inevitable: Ecological and indigenous community impacts of oil spill-related mortality in the United States’ Arctic marine ecosystem. In: Murawski, S.A., Ainsworth, C.H., Gilbert, S., et al. (Eds.). Scenarios and Responses to Future Deep Oil Spills: Fighting the Next War. Springer: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 470–493.

[79] Hou, D., Al-Tabbaa, A., Hu, Q., et al., 2023. Sustainable remediation and redevelopment of brownfield sites. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment. 4(4), 271–286.

[80] Ellis, D.E., Hadley, P.W., 2009. Sustainable remediation white paper—Integrating sustainable principles, practices, and metrics into remediation projects. Remediation Journal. 19(3), 5–114.

[81] Zhang, Z., Sun, H., Guo, Y., 2024. The impact of marine oil spills on the ecosystem. International Journal of Engineering Sciences and Technologies. 2(1).

[82] Martinez Cruz, C.S., Cid Galiot, J.J., Márquez, A.E., et al., 2026. Techniques for Analyzing Soil Aggressiveness to Assess the Impact of Corrosion Using Artificial Intelligence on the Mechanical Integrity of Pipelines in the Oil and Gas Industry. Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology. 148(4), 040801.

Downloads

How to Cite

Zhang, D., Li, G., Liu, P., Tie, W., Zhao, Z., Yi, R., & Guo, X. (2026). Reimagining Oil Spill Response: Innovations in Detection, Risk Assessment, and Sustainable Remediation Pathways. Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences, 8(8), 331–354. https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v8i8.13552

Issue

Vol. 8 , Iss. 8 (August 2026): In Progress

Article Type

Review

License

Copyright © 2026 Dazhi Zhang, Gaimin Li, Peiyuan Liu, Wenli Tie, Zhiyuan Zhao, Ruibing Yi, Xianpei Guo

Creative Commons License

This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.

Crossref
Scopus
Google Scholar
Europe PMC