Spatial Organisation of Housing and Factors Influencing Residential Choice in the Town of Bol, Lake Province, Chad

Authors

  • Parfait Altolnan Tombar

    1. Regional Center of Excellence on Sustainable Cities in Africa (CERViDA-DOUNEDON/UL), University of Lomé, Lomé 01 BP 1515, Togo; 2. Research Laboratory on the Dynamics of Environments and Societies (LARDYMES), University of Lomé, Lomé 01 BP 1515, Togo

     
  • Abdou Kailou Djibo

    African School of Architecture and Urban Planning (EAMAU), Lomé BP 2067, Togo
  • Vidjinnagni Vinasse Ametooyona Azagoun

    1. Regional Center of Excellence on Sustainable Cities in Africa (CERViDA-DOUNEDON/UL), University of Lomé, Lomé 01 BP 1515, Togo; 2. Research Laboratory on the Dynamics of Environments and Societies (LARDYMES), University of Lomé, Lomé 01 BP 1515, Togo
  • François Teadoum Naringué

    1. Regional Center of Excellence on Sustainable Cities in Africa (CERViDA-DOUNEDON/UL), University of Lomé, Lomé 01 BP 1515, Togo; 2. Research Laboratory on Spaces, Exchanges and Human Security (LaREESH), University of Lomé, Lomé 01 BP 1515, Togo
  • Emmanuel Loumouna

    Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Nairobi P.O. Box 6200-00200, Kenya
  • Komi Selom Klassou

    Research Laboratory on the Dynamics of Environments and Societies (LARDYMES), University of Lomé, Lomé 01 BP 1515, Togo

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.30564/jbms.v7i2.9374
Received: 8 April 2025 | Revised: 24 April 2025 | Accepted: 29 April 2025 | Published Online: 6 June 2025

Abstract

Housing, access to which is recognised as a universal right for all, embodies the values, traditions and social dynamics specific to different communities. It is a place of residence whose choice is often influenced by social, economic, religious, demographic, cultural and environmental factors. The housing in Bol, a Sahelian town in the Lac province of Chad, is a good example of this. This study looks at the spatial organisation of housing and the factors influencing residential choice in Bol, a Sahelian town in Chad's Lake Province. The study explains how traditional and modern influences intersect in the built environment, affecting architectural identity and social cohesion. The research methodology includes documentary analysis, field observations, photography, architectural surveys, interviews with urban stakeholders, focus group discussions and household surveys. The results reveal that there are three types of housing in the town of Bol, namely traditional housing, semi-modern housing and modern housing. In addition, three modes of spatial organisation were identified, including organisation around the central courtyard, separation of men and women, and random layout. Housing choice and spatial organisation were influenced by culture, age (p < 5%), gender (p < 0.001), religion (p < 0.001), occupation (p < 0.001) and income (p<5%). The field surveys reveal a transition to modernity that would result in a loss of the architectural identity of the town of Bol. These results provide urban players, political decision-makers and the public with essential information for improving housing and preserving the architectural identity of Bol.

Keywords:

Housing; Spatial Organisation; Residential Choice; Typology; Bol; Lake Chad

References

[1] Al-Mohannadi, A., Major, M.D., Furlan, R., et al., 2023. Investigation of Spatial and Cultural Features in Contemporary Qatari Housing. Urban Science. 7(2), 60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci7020060

[2] Bauer, C., 2016. Advancing the right to housing in the United States: Using international law as a foundation: International Human Rights Committee of the New York City Bar Association. The Affordable Housing Reader, 2nd ed. Routledge: New York, NY, USA.

[3] Kucs, A., Sedlova, Z., Pierhurovica, L., 2008. The right to housing: International, European, and National perspectives. Cuadernos Constitucionales de la Cátedra Fadrique Furió Ceriol. (64), 101–123.

[4] Tossim, M.J., Tombar, P.A., Banakinao, S., et al., 2024. Analysis of the Choice of Cement in Construction and Its Impact on Comfort in Togo. Sustainability. 16(17), 7359. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177359

[5] Rahla, K.M., Mateus, R., Bragança, L., 2019. Comparative sustainability assessment of binary blended concretes using Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) and Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). Journal of Cleaner Production. 220, 445–459. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.02.010

[6] Philokyprou, M., 2015. Continuities and Discontinuities in the Vernacular Architecture. American Journal of Archaeology. 1(2), 111–120.

[7] Hansen, T.B., 2010. From Culture to Barbed Wire: On Houses and Walls in South Africa. Texas International Law Journal. 46, 345.

[8] Kiéthega, J.B. (ed.), 2006. Inventory of local knowledge in Burkina Faso: ethnobotany and traditional medicine: farming practices and systems: ethnozoology and animal health: habitats, local materials and energy: crafts, fire arts and funeral practices [État des lieux des savoirs locaux au Burkina Faso: ethnobotanique et médecine traditionnelle: pratique et systèmes culturaux: ethnozoologie et santé animale: habitats, matériaux locaux et énergie: artisanat, arts du feu et pratiques funéraires]. CAPES, RGC-B: ACBF: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

[9] Tamia, N.N., 2019. Enhancing Chad's architectural heritage: project to restore the Sarh hunting lodge [Valorisation du Patrimoine architectural tchadien: projet de réhabilitation de l’hôtel des chasses de Sarh]. Université Senghor: Alexandria, Egypt.

[10] Guidado, M., 2018. `` Saré’’ and urbanism: Fulani architectural traditions and practices put to the test by modernity. The case of Ngaoundéré (Cameroon) [`` Saré’’ et urbanisme: Traditions et pratiques architecturales peul à l’épreuve de la modernité. Le cas de Ngaoundéré (Cameroun)]. University of Douala: Douala, Cameroon.

[11] Choi, J.Y., Jaepil, C., 2024. Cultural Imprints on Urban Housing: A Spatial Analysis of Apartment Designs in Kenya, Ghana, and South Africa. Buildings. 14(11), 3526. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14113526

[12] Sulaksono, A., Adas, Y.A., Almaimani, A., 2023. Islamic Influence on the Local Majapahit Hindu Dwelling of Indonesia in the 15th Century. Architecture. 3(2), 234–257. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/architecture3020014

[13] Alavi, S.F., Tanaka, T., 2023. Analysing the Role of Identity Elements and Features of Housing in Historical and Modern Architecture in Shaping Architectural Identity: The Case of Herat City. Architecture. 3(3), 548–577. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/architecture3030030

[14] Aguilar-Sanchez, M., Almodovar-Melendo, J.-M., Cabeza-Lainez, J., 2023. Thermal Performance Assessment of Burkina Faso's Housing Typologies. Buildings. 13(11), 2719. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13112719

[15] Alnaim, M.M., Noaime, E., 2022. Typological Transformation of Individual Housing in Hail City, Saudi Arabia: Between Functional Needs, Socio-Cultural, and Building Polices Concerns. Sustainability. 14(11), 6704. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su14116704

[16] ONU-Habitat, n.d. Urban Agenda programme in Africa [Programme de l'Agenda urbain en Afrique]. Available from: https://unhabitat.org/africa-urban-agenda-programme (cited 27 December 2024).

[17] Bah, E.M., Faye, I., Geh, Z.F., 2018. Housing Market Dynamics in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan: London, UK. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59792-2

[18] Addae-Dapaah, K., 2021. Urban Housing Affordability Problem in Africa: A Search for Pragmatic Solution? Journal of African Real Estate Research. 21(1), pp.1–15.

[19] Alkaly, K., n.d. United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) 2017-2021 [Plan cadre des Nations Unies d'Assistance au Développement (UNDAF) 2017-2021].

[20] Ambassade du Tchad à Berlin, 2020. Peoples and cultures [Peuples et cultures]. Available from: https://www.ambatchadberlin.de/tourisme/peuples-et-cultures/ (cited 7 January 2025).

[21] Djako, E.G., Mendy, E., Ngaryamgaye, S., et al., 2024. Study of the Gendered Impacts of Climate Change in Bol, Lake Province, Chad. Climate. 12(10), 157. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12100157

[22] Yobom, N., 2017. Urbanisation and climate issues in the Lake Chad Basin: Proposal for an urban development project for the town of Bol (Chad) [Urbanisation et enjeux climatiques dans le bassin du Lac-Tchad: Proposition d'un projet de développement urbain pour la ville de Bol (Tchad) ]. EAMAU: Lomé, Togo.

[23] INSEED, 2009. Second General Population and Housing Census [Deuxième recensement général de la population et de l'Habitat]. Available from: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Deuxi%C3%A8me+Recensement+G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral+de+la+Population+et+de+l%E2%80%99Habitat&author=INSEED&publication_year=2009 (cited 18 January 2025).

[24] Djimadoum, J., 2023. Conservation and enhancement of the movable cultural heritage of the Lake Chad province - project to create a provincial museum [Conservation et valorisation du patrimoine culturel mobilier de la province du lac Tchad projet de création d'un musée provincial]. Université Senghor: Alexandria, Egypt.

[25] Barreteau, D., 1987. Languages and cultures in the Lake Chad Basin [Langues et cultures dans le bassin du lac Tchad]. Éd. de l'ORSTOM: Paris, France.

[26] Abdelmouktalib Ahmat, B., 2021. Urban sprawl and preservation of the polders and banks of the arm of Lake Chad: proposal for a development plan for the town of Bol (Chad) [Etalement urbain et preservation des polders et berges du bras du lac tchad: proposition d'un plan d'aménagement de la ville de bol (Tchad)]. EAMAU: Lomé, Togo.

[27] Laurent, F., Granjux, J., Barbier, A., et al., 2011. Reference urban plan [Plan urbain de référence]. Urbaplan, Ministère de l'Aménagement du Territioire, de l'Urbanisme et de l'Habitat (MATUH): N'Djamena, Chad; Lausanne, Switzerland.

[28] Stephen, G., Chris, T., 2004. Combining Methods in Educational and Social Research. McGraw-Hill Education: Maidenhead, UK.

[29] Denscombe, M., 2017. EBOOK: The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects. McGraw-Hill Education: Maidenhead, UK.

[30] Allarané, N., Atchadé, A.J., N'Dilbé, T.-R., et al., 2024. Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Strategies into Urban Policies for Sustainable City Resilience: Barriers and Solutions in the Central African City of N'Djaména. Sustainability. 16(13), 5309. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135309

[31] Teadoum Naringué, F., Tob-Ro, N., Allarané, N., et al., 2024. Factors hindering the implementation of urban planning tools in Central Africa: Case study of reference urban plan for Sarh Town (Chad). Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development. 8, 8409. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd8409

[32] Admasu, T.G., Jenberu, A.A., 2020. Urban Planning Implementation Challenges in Arba Minch Town, Southern Ethiopia. Urban Forum. 31(4), 549–572. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12132-020-09393-6

[33] Maru, M., Worku, H., Birkmann, J., 2021. Factors affecting the spatial resilience of Ethiopia's secondary cities to urban uncertainties: A study of household perceptions of Kombolcha city. Heliyon. 7(12), e08472. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08472

[34] Kitzinger, J., Marková, I., Kalampalikis, N., 2004. What are focus groups? [Qu'est-ce que les focus groups?]. Bulletin de Psychologie. 57(3), 237–243. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/bupsy.2004.15339

[35] Malmary, J.-J., 2022. Surveying in architecture, an introduction to surveying the remains of Greco-Roman architecture, course material and tutorials [Le relevé en architecture, initiation au relevé des vestiges d'architecture gréco-romaine, support de cours et de travaux dirigés]. Master. France. Available form: https://shs.hal.science/halshs-03895640v1 IRAA_TD_Releve_Support_JJM_R.pdf (cited 18 January 2025).

[36] Djermoune, H., 2012. The architectural survey, technical drawing [Le Releve d'architecture, dessin technique]. Available from: https://fr.scribd.com/document/615011022/Le-releve-d-architecture (cited 20 January 2025).

[37] Nnaemeka, C.N., 2015. CASE STUDY AS A TOOL FOR ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH. https://www.academia.edu/33816129/CASE_STUDY_AS_A_TOOL_FOR_ARCHITECTURAL_RESEARCH (cited 14 January 2025).

[38] Ghanbari, S., Yeganeh, M., Reza Bemanian, M., 2022. Architecture Typology of Rural Plain Houses Based on Formal Features, Case Study: (Talesh, Iran). Frontiers in Built Environment. 8, 856567. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fbuil.2022.856567

[39] Kamalipour, H., Zaroudi, M., 2014. Sociocultural Context and Vernacular Housing Morphology: A Case Study. Current Urban Studies. 2, 220–232. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/cus.2014.23022

[40] Lidón de Miguel, M., Vegas, F., Mileto, C., García-Soriano, L., 2021. Return to the Native Earth: Historical Analysis of Foreign Influences on Traditional Architecture in Burkina Faso. Sustainability. 13(2), 757. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020757

[41] Torabi, Z., Brahman, S., 2013. Effective Factors in Shaping the Identity of Architecture. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research. 15(1), 106–113.

[42] Alzahrani, A., 2022. Understanding the role of architectural identity in forming contemporary architecture in Saudi Arabia. Alexandria Engineering Journal. 61(12), 11715–11736. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2022.05.041

[43] Soliman, O.A., 2013. Perception of building materials in architecture. Journal of Engineering and Applied Science. 60(6), 1–23.

[44] Olotuah, A.O., Olotuah, A.A., Olotuah, A.M., 2018. Acculturation and traditional house forms in Nigeria. International Journal of Engineering Sciences & Research Technology. 7(12). 275–280.

[45] Tawayha, F.A., Braganca, L., Mateus, R., 2019. Contribution of the Vernacular Architecture to the Sustainability: A Comparative Study between the Contemporary Areas and the Old Quarter of a Mediterranean City. Sustainability. 11(3), 896. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030896

[46] Njoh, A.J., 2003. Urbanisation and development in sub-Saharan Africa. Cities. 20(3), 167–174. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-2751(03)00010-6

[47] Rikko, L.S., Gwatau, D., 2011. The Nigerian architecture: The trend in housing development. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning. 4(5), 273–278.

[48] Osasona, C.O., 2012. Transformed culture, transforming builtscape: experiences from Nigeria. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning. 7(1), 69–100. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2495/SDP-V7-N1-69-100

[49] Ajufoh, M., Prucnal-Ogunsote, B., Enwerekowe, E., 2023. Evaluating Effects of Culture on The Spatial Evolution of Residential Buildings: A Case Study of Bauchi House Forms. Archiculture. 5(1), 62–72.

[50] Aliyu, A.A., Ismail, A.S., 2023. Influence of Islamic Architecture on Residential Structures in the Hausa Community. Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization. 13(2), 48–69. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32350/jitc.132.04

[51] Al Husban, S.A.M., Al Husban, A.A.S., Al Betawi, Y., 2021. The Impact of the Cultural Beliefs on Forming and Designing Spatial Organizations, Spaces Hierarchy, and Privacy of Detached Houses and Apartments in Jordan. Space and Culture. 24(1), 66–82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1206331218791934

[52] Yirenkyi, J.N., 2014. Urban Housing supply challenges and implications for affordable housing in Accra [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Ghana: Accra, Ghana.

[53] Debele, E.T., Negussie, T., 2022. Socio-demographic and socio-economic dynamics underlying housing development of urban residents in Sebeta town, Ethiopia. Cogent Social Sciences. 8(1), 2130210. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2022.2130210

[54] Boateng, S., Appiah, D.O., Buor, D., 2022. Socio-Economic Background of Households and the implication for Housing Choices in Urban Ghana. Ghana Journal of Geography. 14(2), 167–202. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/gjg.v14i2.7

[55] Debele, E.T., Negussie, T., 2021. Growing urban housing consumption and housing policy development trends. Advance. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31124/advance.13640627.v1

[56] Zhou, J., 2018. The New urbanisation plan and permanent urban settlement of migrants in Chongqing, China. Population Space and Place. 24(6), e2144. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2144

Downloads

How to Cite

Parfait Altolnan Tombar, Abdou Kailou Djibo, Vidjinnagni Vinasse Ametooyona Azagoun, François Teadoum Naringué, Emmanuel Loumouna, & Komi Selom Klassou. (2025). Spatial Organisation of Housing and Factors Influencing Residential Choice in the Town of Bol, Lake Province, Chad. Journal of Building Material Science, 7(2), 58–79. https://doi.org/10.30564/jbms.v7i2.9374

Issue

Vol. 7 , Iss. 2 (June 2025): In Progress

Article Type

Article

License

Copyright © 2025 Parfait Altolnan Tombar, Abdou Kailou Djibo, Vidjinnagni Vinasse Ametooyona Azagoun, François Teadoum Naringué, Emmanuel Loumouna, Komi Selom Klassou

Creative Commons License

This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.

Crossref
Scopus
Google Scholar
Europe PMC