Lexical and Semantic Variation in isiXhosa: A Comparative Study of Gqeberha and Mthatha Speech Communities

Authors

  • Yamkela Ngwadla

    Department of Arts, Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha 5099, South Africa
  • Raphael Nhongo

    Department of Arts, Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha 5099, South Africa

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.30564/fls.v7i10.10273
Received: 30 May 2025 | Revised: 24 June 2025 | Accepted: 7 July 2025 | Published Online: 11 October 2025

Abstract

This study examines lexical and semantic variation in isiXhosa as spoken in the Gqeberha and Mthatha speech communities in South Africa's Eastern Cape Province. Although isiXhosa is predominantly spoken in this region, it exhibits substantial dialectal variation influenced by social, historical, and geographical factors. These influences have led to the emergence of distinct regional varieties. The study focuses on comparing lexical and semantic features across these two urban centres, with the aim of understanding the sociolinguistic dynamics shaping their linguistic identities. The research is anchored in the diglossia theory and adopts a qualitative methodology. Data was gathered through semi-structured interviews with isiXhosa speakers from both Gqeberha and Mthatha. The findings reveal significant differences in vocabulary, lexical semantics, grammar, and accent. The variety spoken in Mthatha aligns more closely with the standardised form of isiXhosa, while the Gqeberha variant reflects greater lexical innovation and contact influence. The Gqeberha variety exhibits stylistic innovations in its lexicon where those imaging words are of no semantic significance in speech. These differences have implications for indigenous language education and policy, particularly regarding the accommodation of regional variation. Furthermore, the study highlights how these linguistic differences have contributed to the formation of sub-hegemonies, emerging identities, and underlying tensions among speakers of the different isiXhosa varieties.

Keywords:

Eastern Cape Province; isiXhosa; Language Varieties; Lexical Variation; Semantic Variation

References

[1] Nyamende, A., 1994. Regional variation in Xhosa. Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus. 26, 202–217.

[2] Mtsatse, N., Combrinck, C., 2018. Dialects matter: The influence of dialects and code-switching on the literacy and numeracy achievements of isiXhosa Grade 1 learners in the Western Cape. Journal of Education (University of KwaZulu-Natal). 72, 21–37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17159/2520-9868/i72a02

[3] Kaschula, R.H., Kretzer, M.M., 2019. ‘Hayi, they don’t know Xhosa’: Comparative isiXhosa teaching challenges in the Eastern Cape and Gauteng. South African Journal of African Languages. 39(3), 239–252. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02572117.2019.1672318

[4] Matutu, S., 2020. Heteroglossia in IsiXhosa/English Bilingual Children’s writing: A Case Study of Grade 6 IsiXhosa Home Language in a Township School [Master Thesis]. University of Cape Town: Cape Town, South Africa.

[5] Mtsatse, N., Staden, S., 2021. Exploring differential item functioning on reading achievement: A case for IsiXhosa. South African Journal of African Languages. 41(1), 1–11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02572117.2021.1902127

[6] Gcingca, L., 2022. The emergence of a rural/urban contrast in the vocabulary of Xhosa-speakers: A study in semantic shift in 15 Xhosa words and its relation to age, geographical area and language attitudes [Master Thesis]. University of Cape Town: Cape Town, South Africa.

[7] McWhorter, J.H., 2001. The world’s simplest grammars are Creole grammars. Linguistic Typology. 5(2–3), 125–166. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/lity.2001.001

[8] Nomlomo, V.S., 1993. Language variation in the Transkeian Xhosa speech community and its impact on children's education [Master Thesis]. University of Cape Town: Cape Town, South Africa.

[9] Bloom Strom, E.M., 2018. Linguistic and sociolinguistic aspects of variation in the Eastern Cape: Complexities of Xhosa language use. Studia Orientalia Electronica. 6, 90–120.

[10] Yule, G., 2017. The Study of Language, 6th ed. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.

[11] Bekker, I., 2003. Language attitudes and ethnolinguistic identity in South Africa: A critical review. In: Cohen, J., McAlister, K.T., Rolstad, K., et al. (eds.). Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism. Cascadilla Press: Somerville, MA, USA. pp. 233–239.

[12] Nettle, D., 1996. Language diversity in West Africa: An ecological approach. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 15(4), 403–438.

[13] Kronenfeld, D., Rundblad, G., 2003. The semantic structure of lexical fields: Variation and change. Trends in Linguistics Studies and Monographs. 143, 67–114. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110899979.67

[14] Hasan, R., 1989. Semantic variation and sociolinguistics. Australian Journal of Linguistics. 9(2), 221–275. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07268608908599422

[15] Harrison, K.D., 2007. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK.

[16] Butters, R.R., 2001. Chance as cause of language variation and change. Journal of English Linguistics. 29(3), 201–213. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00754240122005332

[17] Luraghi, S., 2010. Causes of language change. In: Luraghi, S., Bubenik, V. (eds.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Historical Linguistics. Continuum International Publishing Group: London, UK. pp. 358–370.

[18] Bokamba, E.G., 1988. Code-mixing, language variation, and linguistic theory: Evidence from Bantu languages. Lingua. 76(1), 21–62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-3841(88)90017-4

[19] Beck, R.M., 2010. Urban languages in Africa. Africa Spectrum. 45(3), 11–41. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/000203971004500302

[20] Calteaux, K., 1996. Standard and Non-Standard African Language Varieties in the Urban Areas of South Africa. Main Report for the STANON Research Programme. HSRC Publishers: Pretoria, South Africa.

[21] Tegegne, W., 2015. The use of dialects in education and its impacts on students’ learning and achievements. Education Journal. 4(5), 263–269. DOI: https://doi.org/10.11648/j.edu.20150405.22

[22] Ferguson, C.A., 1959. Diglossia. Word. 15(2), 325–340.

[23] Sayahi, L., 2014. Diglossia and Language Contact: Language Variation and Change in North Africa. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.

[24] Yule, G., 2023. The Study of Language, 8th ed. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.

[25] Stepkowska, A., 2012. Diglossia: A critical overview of the Swiss example. Studia Linguistica Universitatis Lagellonicae Cracoviensis. 129, 199–209.

[26] Harris, T., Hodges, R., 1981. A Dictionary of Reading and Related Terms. International Reading Association: Newark, DE, USA.

[27] Creswell, J.W., 2016. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches. SAGE Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA.

[28] Alharahsheh, H.H., Pius, A., 2020. A review of key paradigms: Positivism vs interpretivism. Global Academic Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. 2(3), 39–43. DOI: https://doi.org/10.36348/gajhss.2020.v02i03.001

[29] Hart, C., 2005. Doing Your Masters Dissertation. SAGE Publications: London, UK.

[30] Rahman, M.M., 2023. Sample size determination for survey research and non-probability sampling techniques: A review and set of recommendations. Journal of Entrepreneurship, Business and Economics. 11(1), 42–62.

[31] Braun, V., Clarke, V., 2006. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology. 3(2), 77–101. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

[32] Famakinwa, Y.M., Olagunju, O.M., 2025. Connecting phonology with semantics: A case study of polyphones and homographs in the written essays of some Obafemi Awolowo University English students. Journal of Linguistics, Culture and Communication. 3(1), 50–68.

[33] Kacmarova, A., Bila, M., Vankova, I., 2024. Stylistic redundancy in research papers: Padding as interlingual pleonasm in translation. Topics in Linguistics. 25(1), 42–54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17846/topling-2024-0003

[34] Bongela, K.S., 2001. Isihlonipho among amaXhosa [Doctoral Thesis]. University of South Africa: Pretoria, South Africa.

[35] Jabavu, D.D.T., 1953. Imbumba Yamanyama. Lovedale Press: Alice, South Africa.

[36] Shillington, K., 2005. Encyclopedia of African History. Fitzroy Dearborn: New York, NY, USA.

[37] Seidman, G.W., 2023. Manufacturing Militance: Workers' Movements in Brazil and South Africa, 1970–1985. University of California Press: Berkeley, CA, USA.

[38] Matras, Y., 2020. Language Contact: Cambridge Textbook in Linguistics. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.

[39] Kerswill, P., 2010. Sociolinguistic approaches to language change: Phonology. In: Wodak, R., Johnstone, B., Kerswill, P. (eds.). The Sage Handbook of Sociolinguistics. SAGE Publications: London, UK. pp. 219–235.

Downloads

How to Cite

Ngwadla, Y., & Nhongo, R. (2025). Lexical and Semantic Variation in isiXhosa: A Comparative Study of Gqeberha and Mthatha Speech Communities. Forum for Linguistic Studies, 7(10), 1004–1015. https://doi.org/10.30564/fls.v7i10.10273

Issue

Vol. 7 , Iss. 10 (October 2025)

Article Type

Article

License

Copyright © 2025 Yamkela Ngwadla, Raphael Nhongo

Creative Commons License

This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.