The Moderating Effect of Digital Literacy between Extramural Informal Digital Learning of English and L2 Willingness to Speak

Authors

  • Kairan Kang

    Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 56000, Malaysia
  • Maslawati Mohamad

    Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 56000, Malaysia
  • M. Khalid M. Nasir

    Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 56000, Malaysia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.30564/fls.v7i9.10891
Received: 7 July 2025 | Revised: 18 July 2025 | Accepted: 22 July 2025 | Published Online: 10 September 2025

Abstract

The current study investigated the predicting effect of receptive extramural informal digital learning of English (IDLE) activities (RIA) and productive IDLE activities (PIA) on Chinese-foreign cooperation education program (CEP) students' L2 willingness to speak (WTS), and examined the moderating effect of digital literacy on the relationship between RIA/PIA and L2 WTS. Quantitative data (N = 172) were collected through a questionnaire from a university in China, and the subsequent interviews provided supplementary information. The results indicated that RIA and PIA were significant predictors of CEP students’ L2 WTS, and digital literacy moderated PIA’s effect on L2 WTS. This suggests that CEP students with higher frequency of participation in extramural IDLE tend to initiate speech in English more often in English speaking classes. A more significant role of RIA than PIA was discovered, owing to low frequency of PIA caused by inaccessibility and self-perceived task difficulty. In addition, L2 WTS of CEP students with high digital literacy increased as the frequency of PIA rose. The current study is distinct from previous ones as it investigated the potential moderating role of digital literacy in the effect of RIA/PIA on L2 WTS. For future research, the moderating effect of digital literacy should be further examined as the findings across relevant studies remain inconsistent.

Keywords:

Willingness to Speak; Extramural Informal Digital Learning of English; Digital Literacy; Chinese-Foreign Cooperation Education Program

References

[1] Ministry of Education, 2010. Outline of the National Medium- and Long-Term Plan for Education Reform and Development (2010–2020). Ministry of Education: Beijing, China.

[2] Liu, W., Williams, M., 2021. A Study on English Teaching Quality Assurance Strategies in Chinese-Foreign Cooperative Education Institutions. Education Review. (2), 73–77.

[3] Hu, L., Deng, Y., Cao, L., et al., 2021. Research on the Reform of English Teaching in Sino-Foreign Cooperative Education-Take Hunan Institute of Engineering as an Example. Journal of Hunan Institute of Engineering (Social Science Edition). 31(4), 111–114.

[4] Zainuddin, N.M., Mohamad, M., 2024. Utilising Speechace to Enhance Speaking Skills among English as a Second Language Pre-University Students. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development. 13(2), 1206–1219. DOI: https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARPED/v13-i2/21458

[5] British Council, 2024. Test Taker Performance 2023–2024. Available from: https://www.ielts.org/for-researchers/test-statistics/test-taker-performance (cited 3 May 2025).

[6] Kong, X., 2022. The Existing Problems and Countermeasures in English Teaching of Sino-Foreign Cooperation in Private Universities. Modern English. (10), 17–20.

[7] MacIntyre, P.D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., et al., 1998. Conceptualizing Willingness to Communicate in a L2: A Situational Model of L2 Confidence and Affiliation. The Modern Language Journal. 82(4), 545–562. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1998.tb05543.x

[8] Rahimi, M., Fathi, J., 2022. Employing e-tandem language learning method to enhance speaking skills and willingness to communicate: the case of EFL learners. Computer Assisted Language Learning. 37(4), 924–960. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2022.2064512

[9] Kuo, Y.-C., 2020. An Investigation to Influence and Perception of Language Attitude towards English Accent: A Sociolinguistics Perspective on Chinese Postgraduate Students' Willingness to Communicate. Annual Review of Education, Communication & Language Sciences. 17, 60–115.

[10] Lee, J.S., 2022. Informal Digital Learning of English: Research to Practice. Routledge: New York, NY, USA.

[11] Tai, T.Y., Chen, H.H.J., 2023. The impact of Google Assistant on adolescent EFL learners' willingness to communicate. Interactive Learning Environments. 31(3), 1485–1502. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1841801

[12] Lee, J.S., Drajati, N.A., 2019. Affective variables and informal digital learning of English: Keys to willingness to communicate in a second language. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology. 35(5), 168–182. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.5177

[13] Nguyen, H., Chambers, W., Abbott, M., et al., 2022. Building ESL Learners' Digital Literacy Skills Using Internet Memes. TESL Canada Journal. 39(1), 83–103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18806/tesl.v39i1/1368

[14] Abd Majid, M.Z., Norman, M.H., Zaini, M.H., et al., 2025. Technological Empowerment in Education: A Systematic Review. SAGE Open. 15(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251325077

[15] European Commission, 2022. The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens. Available from: https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC128415 (cited 19 May 2025).

[16] State Council, 2019. Regulations of the People's Republic of China on Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools. State Council: Beijing, China.

[17] Mei, J., 2022. Insights from IELTS Speaking Test into English Speaking Teaching in Chinese-Foreign Cooperative Education. Overseas English. (19), 92–93, 102.

[18] Li, J., Xue, E., 2024. Pursuing High-Quality Internationalization of Higher Education in China: Policies, Challenges, and Strategies. Springer Nature: Singapore.

[19] Li, W., Qiu, R., 2021. The Implications of IELTS for English Teaching in Chinese-Foreign Cooperative Programs in Independent Institutions. Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication. 29(10), 122–124.

[20] Liu, L., 2023. Research on the Application and Practice of IELTS Oral Teaching in Colleges and Universities under Sino-Foreign Cooperative Educational Mode. English Campus. (29), 103–105.

[21] Xie, Y., 2021. Research on the Application and Practice of IELTS Oral English Teaching in Chinese-Foreign Cooperative Educational Mode. Overseas English. (21), 25–31.

[22] Lee, J.S., 2019. EFL Students’ Views of Willingness to Communicate in the Extramural Digital Context. Computer Assisted Language Learning. 32(7), 692–712. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1535509

[23] Lee, J.S., Sylvén, L.K., 2021. The Role of Informal Digital Learning of English in Korean and Swedish EFL Learners' Communication Behaviour. British Journal of Educational Technology. 52(3), 1279–1296. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13082

[24] Lee, J.S., Sylvén, L.K., Lee, K., et al., 2021. Cross-Cultural Insights into Korean and Swedish Secondary School Students' Willingness to Communicate in a Second Language. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 42(6), 522–536. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2019.1708917

[25] Li, G., Sun, Z., Jee, Y., 2019. The more technology the better? A comparison of teacher-student interaction in high and low technology use elementary EFL classrooms in China. System. 84, 24–40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.05.003

[26] Ebadi, S., Ebadijalal, M., 2022. The effect of Google Expeditions virtual reality on EFL learners' willingness to communicate and oral proficiency. Computer Assisted Language Learning. 35(8), 1975–2000. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2020.1854311

[27] Lee, J.S., 2019. Quantity and diversity of informal digital learning of English. Language Learning & Technology. 23(1), 114–126. DOI: https://doi.org/10.10125/44675

[28] Krashen, S.D., 1982. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Pergamon: New York, NY, USA.

[29] Wang, H., Chen, C.W., 2020. Learning English from YouTubers: English L2 learners’ self-regulated language learning on YouTube. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching. 14(4), 333–346. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2019.1607356

[30] Lee, J.S., Lee, K., 2020. Affective factors, virtual intercultural experiences, and L2 willingness to communicate in in-class, out-of-class, and digital settings. Language Teaching Research. 24(6), 813–833. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168819831408

[31] Ulfert-Blank, A.-S., Schmidt, I., 2022. Assessing digital self-efficacy: Review and scale development. Computers & Education. 191, 104626. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104626

[32] Lee, J.S., Xie, Q., Lee, K., et al., 2021. Informal digital learning of English and L2 willingness to communicate: roles of emotions, gender, and educational stage. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 45(2), 596–612. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2021.1918699

[33] Zamani, A., Mohamad, M., 2023. The Challenges in Online Teaching and Learning During Emergency Remote Teaching and Learning (ERTL) among the English Language Educators. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences. 13(8), 854–864. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v13-i8/18155

[34] Sani, L. binti A., Mohamad, M., 2023. Exploring the Theory, Benefits, and Challenges of Mobile Web-Based Learning (MWBL) for English as a Second Language (ESL) Learners. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development. 12(3), 1095–1102. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6007/IJARPED/v12-i3/19003

[35] Zadorozhnyy, A., Lee, J.S., 2025. Informal Digital Learning of English and willingness to communicate in a second language: self-efficacy beliefs as a mediator. Computer Assisted Language Learning. 38(4), 669–689. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2023.2215279

[36] Hu, H., Du, K., Hashim, H.U., et al., 2025. Exploring technology-in-practice: Educational escape rooms for grammar instruction in French as a foreign language. Language Learning & Technology. 29(1), 1–15.

[37] Lee, J.S., Chiu, M.M., 2024. Modelling trait and state willingness to communicate in a second language: An experience sampling approach. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching. 14(3), 483–514.

[38] Richards, J.C., 2015. Moving Beyond the Plateau: From Intermediate to Advanced Levels in Language Learning. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.

[39] Sari, N.M., Abrar, M., 2024. Use of Technology in English Language Learning: Challenges and Benefits. Linguistic, English Education and Art Journal. 7(2), 362–372. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31539/leea.v7i2.10034

[40] Hu, H., Du, K., 2022. TikTok in Mobile-Assisted English Language Learning: An Exploratory Study. International Journal of Information and Education Technology. 12(12), 1311–1320. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18178/ijiet.2022.12.12.1755

[41] Zhou, S., 2020. An Empirical Study of College Students’ Fragmented English Learning. Academic Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences. 3(3), 90–98. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25236/AJHSS.2020.030312

[42] Pritchard, A., Woollard, J., 2010. Psychology for the Classroom: Constructivism and Social Learning, 1st ed. Routledge: London, UK. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203855171

[43] Kholidi, M.A., Ariawan, S., Azhan, N.A.S., et al., 2024. Digital Literacy Practices of English As A Second Language Students: A Case Study at Mara University Of Technology Malaysia. ASEAN Journal of Teaching & Learning in Higher Education. 16(1), 104–119. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17576/ajtlhe.1601.2024.07

[44] Soyoof, A., Reynolds, B.L., Vazquez-Calvo, B., et al., 2023. Informal digital learning of English (IDLE): a scoping review of what has been done and a look towards what is to come. Computer Assisted Language Learning. 36(4), 608–640. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1936562

[45] Hassan, M., Malik, A.S., Sang, G., et al., 2022. Examine the parenting style effect on the academic achievement orientation of secondary school students: The moderating role of digital literacy. Frontiers in Psychology. 13, 1063682. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1063682

[46] Liang, W., 2021. University teachers' technology integration in teaching English as a foreign language: evidence from a case study in mainland China. SN Social Science. 1(8), 219.

[47] Kim, Y., Lee, M., 2023. Does Social Media Use Mitigate or Exacerbate Loneliness among Korean Older Adults? Focusing on the Moderating Role of Media Literacy. Social Media + Society. 9(2), 20563051231177959. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051231177959

[48] Aryani, A.T.D., Rosyid, A., 2025. Online learning engagement and operational accounting competencies: the moderating role of digital literacy. Education and Information Technologies. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-025-13517-5

Downloads

How to Cite

Kang, K., Mohamad, M., & M. Nasir, M. K. (2025). The Moderating Effect of Digital Literacy between Extramural Informal Digital Learning of English and L2 Willingness to Speak. Forum for Linguistic Studies, 7(9), 571–583. https://doi.org/10.30564/fls.v7i9.10891

Issue

Vol. 7 , Iss. 9 (September 2025)

Article Type

Article

License

Copyright © 2025 Kairan Kang, Maslawati Mohamad, M. Khalid M. Nasir

Creative Commons License

This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.