Complex PTSD and Forced Migration of Children and Adolescents from Latin America

Authors

  • Fabiana Franco Clinical and Consulting Services

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.30564/jpr.v4i3.4730

Abstract

In order to provide culturally competent care to children and adolescents that have been subject to forced migration, clinicians must first understand the unique trauma these individuals experienced. Victims of forced migration frequently experience trauma pre-displacement, typically resulting from the same factors that led to the forced migration. They then often experience trauma during the migration itself and post-migration as they settle in a new environment, sometimes without their families if they are unaccompanied minors. An increased risk of developing complex PTSD (C-PTSD) correlates with the number of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) such as those experienced by children and adolescents that experience forced migration. Understanding the nuances of these traumas and their specific manifestations for the individual child or adolescent is critical for effective behavioral health support. Trauma signature (TSIG) analysis offers clinicians a method to understand the relationship between traumatic events and the physical and psychological consequences to best support these victims.

Keywords:

Complex trauma, C-ptsd, Forced migration, Forced displacement, Unaccompanied minors

References

[1] UNHCR, 2015. UNHCR Global Trends –Forced Displacement in 2014. UNHCR. https://www.unhcr.org/556725e69.html.

[2] UNHCR, 2022. Global Trends Forced Displacement in 2021. UNHCR. https://www.unhcr.org/62a9d1494/global-trends-report-2021.

[3] United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF). (n.d.) Migrant and Refugee Children in Latin America and the Caribbean. UNICEF Latin America and the Caribbean. https://www.unicef.org/lac/en/migrant-and-refugee-children-latin-america-and-caribbean.

[4] US Customs and Border Protection, 2021. CBP Announces February 2021 Operational Update. US Customs and Border Protection. https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/national-media-release/cbp-announces-february-2021-operational-update.

[5] US Customs and Border Protection, 2021. Southwest Land Border Encounters. US Customs and Border Protection. https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/southwest-land-border-encounters.

[6] Fazel, M., Stein, A., 2002. The mental health of refugee children. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 87, 366–370.

[7] DeHoff, L., Hatzichristou, C., Mayes, F., et al., 2017. International collaboration on psychosocial support for refugee children in Greece. Communique. 48(4), 1-9.

[8] Kaplin, D., Parente, K., Santacroce, F.A., 2019. A review of the use of trauma systems therapy to treat refugee children, adolescents and families. Journal of Infant, Child and Adolescent Psychotherapy. 18(4), 417-431.

[9] Clauss-Ehlers, C.S., 2019. Forced Migration among Latinx Children and their Families: Introducing Trilateral Migration Trauma as a Concept to Reflect a Forced Migratory Experience. Journal of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychotherapy. 18(4), 330-342. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15289168.2019.1686742

[10] Newnham, E.A., Kashyap, S., Tearne, J., et al., 2018. Child mental health in the context of war: An overview of risk factors and interventions for refugee and war-affected youth. Mental Health of Refugee and Conflict-affected Populations. 37-63.

[11] Vossoughi, N., Jackson, Y., Gusler, S., et al., 2016. Mental health outcomes for youth living in refugee camps: A review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. 1524838016673602. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016673602

[12] Quiroz, N., 2002. Children first…organisation and recovery in Latin America. Forced Migration Review. 15, 12-13.

[13] Uribe Guajardo, M.G., Slewa-Younan, S., Santalucia, Y., et al., 2016. Important considerations when providing mental health first aid to Iraqi refugees in Australia: a Delphi study. International Journal of Mental Health Systems. 10, 54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-016-0087-1

[14] Newnham, E.A., Pearson, R.M., Stein, A., et al., 2015. Youth mental health after civil war: the importance of daily stressors. The British Journal of Psychiatry. 206(2), 116-121.

[15] United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), 2018. In Venezuela, prevalence of malnutrition among children grows as economic crisis deepens: UNICEF urges coordinated national action to reach children most in need. UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/venezuela-prevalence-malnutrition-among-children-grows-economic-crisis-deepens.

[16] United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), 2021. Child Migration. UNICEF. https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-migration-and-displacement/migration/.

[17] International Crisis Group, 2017. Mafia of the poor: Gang violence and extortion in Central America. Latin America & Caribbean. 62.

[18] Sapountzis, I., 2022. Reflections on Trauma Systems Therapy for Refugees (TST-R): A commentary on Dr. Franco’s paper. Journal of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychotherapy.

[19] Franco, F., 2022. Recognizing and treating complex post-traumatic stress disorder in refugee children. Journal of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychotherapy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15289168.2022.2094674

[20] Myles, P., Swenshon, S., Haase, K., et al., 2018. A comparative analysis of psychological trauma experienced by children and young adults in two scenarios: evacuation after a natural disaster vs forced migration to escape armed conflict. Public Health. 158, 163-175. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2018.03.012

[21] Mitchell, S.M., Pizzi, E., 2021. Natural Disasters, Forced Migration, and Conflict: The Importance of Government Policy Responses. International Studies Review. 23(3), 580-604.

[22] Ocean, S.E., 2020. Family Environment and Attachment in Relation to Complex Trauma and C-PTSD. Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 11656. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/11656.

[23] Schore, A.N., 2003. Affect dysregulation and disorders of the self. Norton & Company.

[24] Leung, J.P., Britton, A., Bell, S., 2016. Adverse Childhood Experiences and Alcohol Consumption in Midlife and Early Old-Age. Alcohol and Alcoholism. 51(3), 331–338. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agv125

[25] Shultz, J.M., Garfin, D.R., Espinel, Z., et al., 2014. Internally displaced “victims of armed conflict” in Colombia: the trajectory and trauma signature of forced migration. Current Psychiatry Reports. 16, 475. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-014-0475-7

[26] Shultz, J.M., Neria, Y., 2013. Trauma signature analysis: State of the art and evolving future directions. Disaster health. 1(1), 4–8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4161/dish.24011

[27] Kessler, R.C., McLaughlin, K.A., Koenen, K.C., et al., 2012. The importance of secondary trauma exposure for post-disaster mental disorder. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences. 21(1), 35-45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/s2045796011000758

[28] Bragin, M., 2019. Myth, Memory, and Meaning: Understanding and Treating Adolescents Experiencing Forced Migration. Journal of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychotherapy. 18(4), 319-329. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15289168.2019.1691892

[29] Hinton, D.E., Patel, A., 2018. Culturally Sensitive CBT for Refugees: Key Dimensions. N. Morina, A. Nickerson (eds.), Mental Health of Refugee and Conflict-Affected Populations. Springer Nature. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97046-2_10

[30] Ellis, B., Miller, A., Baldwin, H., et al., 2011. New directions in refugee mental health services: Overcoming barriers to engagement. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma. 4, 69-85.

[31] Soltan, F., Uphoff, E., Newson, R., et al., 2020. Community-based interventions for improving mental health in refugee children and adolescents in high-income countries. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD013657

[32] Apfel, R.J., Simon, B., (Eds), 1996. Minefields in Their Hearts: The Mental health of Children in War and Communal Violence. Yale University Press.

[33] Garbarino, J., Kostelny, K., Dubrow, N., 1991. What children can tell us about living in danger. American Psychologist. 46(4), 376–383. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.46.4.376

Downloads

How to Cite

Franco, F. (2022). Complex PTSD and Forced Migration of Children and Adolescents from Latin America. Journal of Psychological Research, 4(3), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.30564/jpr.v4i3.4730

Issue

Article Type

Perspective