Psychological Risk Factors of Terrorist Offenders in Indonesia

Authors

  • Zora A. Sukabdi University of Indonesia, Indonesia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.30564/jpr.v3i4.3748

Abstract

Psychological criminogenic factors for identifying terrorist offenders at risk of recidivism in Indonesia remain unclear; hence the adequate assessment to those involved with terrorism and measurement of effective terrorism rehabilitation are questioned. ‘MIKRA’ Risk Assessment was developed to identify individual criminogenic risk factors and needs of terrorist offenders in Indonesia. It is formulated to set up future parameters of effective terrorism rehabilitation. MIKRA study involved thirty-two eminent Indonesian counterterrorism experts and practitioners in semistructured interviews and qualitative data analysis. The study identifies 18 individual risk factors and needs of ideology-based terrorist offenders that are grouped into one of three higher order domains: Motivation, Ideology, and Capability.

Keywords:

Terrorism; Risk assessment; Risk factors; Motivation; Ideology; Capability

References

[1] Shepherd, J. (2007), The rise and rise of terrorism studies. The Guardian, 3 July. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/education/2007/jul/03/highereducation.research.

[2] McGilloway, A., Ghosh, P., & Bhui, K. (2015), A systematic review of pathways to and processes associated with radicalisation and extremism amongst Muslims in western societies. International Review of Psychiatry, 27(1), 39-50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2014.992008.

[3] Abbas,. T., & Siddique, A. (2012), Perception of the processes of radicalisation and de-radicalisation among british south asian muslims in a post-industrial city. Social Identities, 8, 119-134.

[4] Tausch, N., Spears, R., & Christ, O. (2009), Religious and national identity as predictors of attitudes towards the 7/7 bombings among british muslims: an analysis of uk opinion poll data. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 22, 103-126.

[5] Monahan, J. (2012), The individual risk assessment of terrorism. Psychology, Public Policy and Law, 18(2), 167-205. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025792.

[6] O’Duffy, B. (2008), Radical atmosphere: explaining Jihadist radicalisation in the UK. PS: Political Science & Politics, 41(01), 37-42.

[7] Bhui, K. S., Hicks, M. H., Lashley, M., & Jones, E. (2012), A public health approach to understanding and preventing violent radicalisation. BMC Medicine, 10(16).

[8] Shepherd, J. (2007), The rise and rise of terrorism studies. The Guardian, 3 July. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/education/2007/jul/03/highereducation.research.

[9] LaFree, G., & Dugan, L. (2004), How does studying terrorism compare to studying crime? In M. DeFlem (Ed.), Terrorism and counter-terrorism: Criminological Perspectives (pp. 53–74). New York, NY: Elsevier.

[10] Rosenfeld, R. (2003), Why criminologists should study terrorism. Crime & Justice International, 19, 34–35.

[11] Dernevik, M., Beck, A., Grann, M., Hogue, T., & McGuire, J. (2009a), The use of psychiatric and psychological evidence in the assessment of terrorist offenders. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 20, 508–515. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13501760902771217.

[12] Dernevik, M., Beck, A., Grann, M., Hogue, T., & McGuire, J. (2009b), A response to Dr. Gudjonsson’s commentary. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 20, 520–522. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13501760902771258.

[13] Milla, M. N. (2019, December), Pengukuran radikalisme dalam perspektif psikologi politik [Measuring radicalism in political psychology perspective]. Conference session presented at Seminar Nasional Asosiasi Psikologi Militer, Bandung.

[14] CNN Indonesia. (2019, November 15), Radikalisme, Definisi Semu Dan Potensi Salah Sasaran [Radicalism, its blurred definition and potential misuse]. https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20191115104318-20-448568/radikalisme-definisi-semu-dan-potensi-salah-sasaran.

[15] Chaterine, R. N. (2019, October 9), Mendikbud Minta Ukuran Radikal Dijelaskan, agar Sekolah Tak Disalahkan [the Ministry of Education asks for the definition of radicalism]. Detiknews. https://news.detik.com/berita/d-4739948/mendikbud-minta-ukuran-radikal-dijelaskan-agar-sekolah-tak-disalahkan.

[16] Puspita, R. (2019, October 9), Kemendikbud Susun Instrumen Pantau Radikalisme Di Sekolah [Ministry of Education is formulating instruments for detecting radicalism]. Republika Online. https://republika.co.id/berita/pz3t06428/kemendikbud-susun-instrumen-pantau-radikalisme-di-sekolah.

[17] Sean, A. (2019, November 21), Kecenderungan Radikalisme CPNS Bisa Diukur? [Can we measure radicalism in civil servants?] Indopolitika. com. https://indopolitika.com/kecenderungan-radikalisme-cpns-bisa-diukur/2/.

[18] Abdurakhman, H. (2019, November 4), Menakar Radikalisme Melalui Cadar Dan Celana Cingkrang [Evaluating radicalism from physical appearance]. Retrieved from https://news.detik.com/kolom/d-4770926/menakar-radikalisme-melalui-cadar-dan-celana-cingkrang.

[19] Jyestha, V. (2018, May 26), BNPT Dinilai Masih Sangat Lemah Melakukan Deradikalisasi Dan Kontra Radikalisme [BNPT is not managing correct deradicalisation and counter-radicalism]. Retrieved from https://wartakota.tribunnews.com/2018/05/26/bnpt-dinilai-masih-sangat-lemah-melakukan-deradikalisasi-dan-kontra-radikalisme.

[20] Mubarok. (2012), Stigmatisasi Pemberitaan Terorisme di Media Massa [Stigma in Terrorism Journalism in Social Media]. Jurnal Interaksi Magister Ilmu Komunikasi Undip Semarang, 1(1). Retrieved from http://research.unissula.ac.id/pages/publikasi.php?id=NzkzYXBheWFlbmtyaXBzaW55YT8=.

[21] Shemi, H. (2018, May 17), 4 Kategori Teroris Di Indonesia, Salah Satunya Simpatisan [Four categories of terrorists]. Retrieved from https://www.idntimes.com/news/indonesia/helmi/4-kategori-teroris-di-indonesia-1/4.

[22] Santosa, B. (2013, March 16), Inilah 5 Ciri Teroris modern versi Mabes Polri : Okezone Nasional [These are five characteristics of terrorist according to the national police]. Retrieved from https://nasional.okezone.com/read/2013/03/16/337/776850/inilah-5-ciri-teroris-modern-versi-mabes-polri.

[23] Solahudin. (2011), NII sampai JI: Salafi Jihadisme di Indonesia [From NII to JI: Salafist Jihadism in Indonesia]. Depok: Komunitas Bambu.

[24] Idris, I. (2019, December), Radikal Terorisme dan Pengukuran Radikalisme bagi Sasaran Deradikalisasi [the Measurement on Radicalism]. Conference session presented at Seminar Nasional Asosiasi Psikologi Militer, Bandung.

[25] Andrews, D. A., Bonta, J., & Hoge, R. D. (1990), Classification for effective rehabilitation: Rediscovering psychology. Criminal Justice and Behaviour, 17(1), 19-52.

[26] Andrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (2010), The psychology of criminal conduct (5th ed.). New Providence, NJ: Matthew Bender & Company, Inc.

[27] Schmid, A. (1983), Political terrorism: A research guide to the concepts, theories, databases and literature. Amsterdam: North Holland.

[28] Jenkins, B. M. (1982), Statements about terrorism. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 463, 11-23.

[29] Hoffman, B. (1998), Inside terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press.

[30] Badey, T. J. (1998), Defining international terrorism: A pragmatic approach. Terrorism and Political Violence, 10(1), 90-107.

[31] Laqueur, W. (1999), The new terrorism: Fanaticism and the arms of mass destruction. New York: Oxford University Press.

[32] Victoroff, J. (2005), The mind of the terrorist: A review and critique of psychological approaches. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49(1), 3-42.

[33] Post, J. M., Sprinzak, E., & Denny, L. M. (2003), The terrorists in their own words: Interviews with 35 incarcerated Middle Eastern terrorists. Terrorism and Political Violence, 15, 171-184.

[34] Mufid, A. S., Sarwono, S. W., Syafii, M., Baedowi, A., Karnavian, T., Zarkasih, M., & Padmo, A. (2011), Research on Motivation and Root Causes of Terrorism. Jakarta: Indonesian Institute for Society Empowerment.

[35] Azra, A. (2006a), Indonesia, Islam, and democracy: Dynamics in a global context. Jakarta: Equinox Publishing.

[36] Azra, A. (2006b), Contemporary Islamic militant movements in Indonesia. Asian Cultural Studies, 15, 1-10.

[37] Roy, O. (2004), Globalised Islam: The search for a new ummah. London: Hurst.

[38] Hilmy, M. (2013), The politics of retaliation: The backlash of radical Islamists against deradicalisation project in Indonesia. Journal of Al-Jami’ah: Journal of Islamic Studies, 51(1), 129-158.

[39] Dekmejian, R. H. (1985), Islam in revolution: Fundamentalism in Arab world. New York: Syracuse University Press.

[40] Yusanto, I. (2003), Selamatkan Indonesia dengan Syariat Islam. Syariat Islam Pandangan Islam Liberal [Save Indonesia with Sharia]. Jakarta: Sembrani Aksara Nusantara, 139-171.

[41] Talafihah, S. T. A., Mohd Amin, M. F., & Mohd Zarif, M. M. (2017), Taghut: A Quranic Perspective. Ulum Islamiyyah, 22, Pp. 87-95. https://doi.org/10.33102/uij.vol22no0.11

[42] Zulkarnain, F., & Purnama, T. S. (2016), The ISIS movement and the threat or religious radicalism in Indonesia. Mimbar, 32(1), 31-39. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49(1), 3-42.

[43] Kruglanski, A., Gunaratna, R., & Gelfand, M. (2011), Aspects of deradicalisation. In Terrorist Rehabilitation and Counter-radicalisation: New Approaches to Counter-terrorism. Routledge.

[44] Putra, I. E., & Sukabdi, Z. A. (2013), Basic concepts and reasons behind the emergence of religious terror activities in Indonesia: an inside view. Asian Journal of Social Psychology (in press).

[45] Rabasa, A., Pattyjohn, S. L., Ghez, J. J., & Boucek, C. (2010), Deradicalizing Islamist Extrem-ists. Rand Corporation. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2010/RAND_MG1053.pdf.

[46] Gunaratna, R., Jerard, J., & Rubin, L. (2011), Terrorist rehabilitation and counter-radicalisation: New approaches to counter-terrorism. Routledge.

[47] Shemella, P. (2011), Fighting Back: What Governments Can Do About Terrorism. Redwood City: Stanford University Press.

[48] Kruglanski, A., Chen, X., Dechesne, M., Fishman, S., & Orehek, E. (2009), Fully committed: Suicide bombers’ motivation and the quest for personal significance. Political Psychology, 30, 331–357. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2009.00698.x.

[49] Moghadam, A. (2006), Suicide terrorism, occupation, and the globalization of martyrdom: A critique of Dying to Win. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 29(8), 707-729.

[50] Samudra, I. (2004), Aku melawan teroris! [I am fighting terrorists!]. Solo: Jazera.

[51] Bonta, J., & Andrews, D. (2016), The Psychology of Criminal Conduct. London: Routledge.

[52] Maslow, A. H. (1943), A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346.

[53] Ashour, O. (2007), Lions Tamed? An Inquiry into the Causes of De-Radicalization of Armed Islamist Movements: The Case of the Egyptian Islamic Group. The Middle East Journal, 61(4), 596- 625. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3751/61.4.12.

[54] Bjorgo, T., & Horgan, J. (2008), Conclusion. In Leaving Terrorism Behind: Individual and Collective Disengagement (pp. 245-255). Routledge.

[55] Frieden, J. A. (1999), Actors and preferences in international relations. In D. A. Lake & R. Powell, (Eds.), Strategic choice and international relations (pp. 39–76). New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

[56] Horgan, J. (2008), From profiles to pathways and roots toroutes: Perspectives from psychology on radicalisation into terrorism. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Science, 618, 80-94.

[57] Hwang, C. J. (2015), The Disengagement of Indonesian Jihadists: Understanding the Pathways. Terrorism and Political Violence, 19p. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015.1034855.

[58] Koehler, D. (2017a), How and why we should take deradicalisation seriously. Nature Human Behaviour, 1, 0095. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0095.

[59] Koehler, D. (2017b), Understanding deradicalisation: Methods, tools and programs for countering violent extremism. New York/ London: Routledge.

[60] Lowry, K. D. (2018), Responding to the challenges of violent extremism/terrorism cases for United States Probation and Pretrial Services. Journal for Deradicalization, 17, 28–88.

[61] Rokeach, M. (1973), The nature of human values. New York: The Free Press.

[62] Amir, S. (2013), Pancasila as Integration Philosophy of Education and National Character. International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research, 2(1), 54-57.

[63] Amirullah. (2018, July 3), BNPT dikritik soal pemakaian kata radikalisme oleh Sekjen PBB [BNPT is criticised by the UN on the use of term radicalism]. Tempo.co [Jakarta]. Retrieved from https://nasional.tempo.co/read/1103273/bnpt-dikritik-soalpemakaian-kata-radikalisme-oleh-sekjen-pbb.

[64] Mudassir, R. (2019, November 5), Ini 4 kriteria radikal yang harus dipahami, menurut BNPT [Four characteristics of being ”radical” according to BNPT]. Bisnis.com [Jakarta]. Retrieved from https://kabar24.bisnis.com/read/20191105/15/1167259/ini4-kriteria-radikal-yang-harus-dipahami-menurutbnpt.

[65] Jannah, M., & Kusno, K. (2020), Peranan Pendidikan Pancasila bagi Masyarakat dalam Pembentukan Karakter dan Moral Berbangsa dan Bernegara [The Role of Pancasila in Character Building]. Civitas (Jurnal Pembelajaran dan Ilmu Civic), 1(1), 1-7.

[66] Nurhadi, N. (2019), Ideologi Konstitusi Piagam Madinah dan Relevansinya dengan Ideologi Pancasila [the Charter of Medina and its relation to Pancasila]. Volksgeist: Jurnal Ilmu Hukum dan Konstitusi, 2(1), 107-129.

[67] Sahrani, R., Suyasa, P. T. Y. S., & Basaria, D. (2018), Kebijaksanaan berbasis Pancasila dan pengukurannya [The policy based on Pancasila and its measurement]. Seri Sumbangan Pemikiran Psikologi untuk Bangsa, 3, 433-455.

[68] Wijaya, I. K. (2018), Revitalisasi Program Pedoman Penghayatan dan Pengamalam Pancasila (P4) pada Jenjang Sekolah Dasar (SD) untuk Membentuk Generas Emas 2045 Bermoral Pancasila [Pancasila Programs for Primary Students]. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Pendidikan Dasar (SENADA III): Moral Literacy for Better Life, 91-102. Retrieved from http://jayapanguspress.penerbit.org/index.php/PN/article/view/27/27.

[69] Benda, H. J. (1980), Bulan sabit dan matahari terbit: Islam di Indonesia pada masa pendudukan Jepang [Crescent Moon and Sunrise: Islam in Indonesia during Japanese occupation]. Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya.

[70] Asal, Victor, Gary Ackerman, and R. Karl Rethemeyer. (2012), Connections Can Be Toxic: Terrorist Organisational Factors and the Pursuit of CBRN Weapons Studies in Terrorism and Conflict 35:229–254.

[71] Gilmore, W. C. (2004), Dirty money: The evolution of international measures to counter money laundering and the financing of terrorism (3rd ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.au/booksid=mPdnRReVTAcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=-false.

[72] Hardouin, P. (2009), Banks governance and public-private partnership in preventing and confronting organised crime, corruption and terrorism financing. Journal of Financial Crime, 16(3), 199-209. Retrieved from http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/10.1108/13590790910971757.

[73] Irwin, A. S., & Slay, J. (Eds.). (2010), Detecting Money Laundering and Terrorism Financing Activity in Second Life and World of Warcraft. Perth Western: Edith Cowan University, Research Online, Perth, Western Australia.

[74] Koblentz, G. D. (2011), Predicting peril or the peril of prediction? assessing the risk of CBRN terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 23(4), 501- 520. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2011.575487.

[75] Tucker, D. (2001), What is new about the new terrorism and how dangerous is it? Terrorism and Political Violence, 13(3), 1-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550109609688.

[76] Denbeaux, M., & Denbeaux, J. (2006), No-hearing hearings. CSRT: The modern habeas corpus? Retrieved from http://law.shu.edu/publications/guantanamoReports/final_no_hearing_hearings_report.pdf.

[77] Felter, J., & Brachman, J. (2007), CTC report: An assessment of 516 combatant status review tribunal (CSRT) unclassified summaries. Retrieved from http://www.ctc.usma.edu/csrt/CTC-CSRT-Report-072407.pdf.

[78] Savage, C., Glaberson, W., & Lehren, A. (2011, April 24), Classified files offer new insights into detainees. New York Times, p. A1. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/25/world/guantanamo-files-lives-in-an-american-limbo.html?scp1&sqClassified%20files%20offer%20new%20 insights%20into%20detainees&stcse.

[79] Meehl, P. (1954), Clinical versus statistical prediction: A theoretical analysis and a review of the evidence. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/11281-000.

[80] Atran, S. (2003), Genesis of suicide terrorism. Science, 299, 1534-1539. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1078854.

[81] Bakker, E. (2006), Jihadi terrorists in Europe their characteristics and the circumstances in which they joined the jihad: An exploratory study. The Hague: Netherlands Institute of International Relations. Retrieved from https://www.clingendael.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/20061200_cscp_csp_bakker.pdf.

[82] Gartenstein-Ross, D., & Grossman, L. (2009), Homegrown terrorists in the U.S. and U.K: An empirical study of the radicalisation process. Foundation for Defence of Democracies, Center for Terrorism Research. Retrieved from http://www.defenddemocracy.org/content/uploads/documents/HomegrownTerrorists_USandUK.pdf.

[83] Krueger, A., & Maleckova, J. (2002, June 24), Does poverty cause terrorism? The New Republic, pp. 27- 33.

[84] McCauley, C., & Segal, M. (1987), Terrorist individuals and terrorist groups: The normal psychology of extreme behaviour. In J. Groebel & J. Goldstein (Eds.), Terrorism: Psychological perspective (pp. 39-64). Seville: Publicationes de la Universidad de Sevilla.

[85] Merari, A. (2005), Social, organizational, and psychological factors in suicide terrorism. In T. Bjorgo (Ed.), Root cause of terrorism, Myths, reality, and ways forward (pp. 70-89). London, UK: Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203337653_chapter_6.

[86] Merari, A. (2010), Driven to death: Psychological and social aspects of suicide terrorism. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

[87] Sukabdi, Z. A. (2017), Psychological rehabilitation for ideology-based terrorism offenders. International Journal of Neurorehabilitation, 4(01). DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2376-0281.1000247.

[88] Bohart, A. C., & Tallman, K. (1996), The active client: Therapy as self-help. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 36(3), 7-30.

[89] Farber, E. W. (2012), Supervising humanistic-existential psychotherapy: Needs, possibilities. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 42(3), 173-182.

[90] Greenberg, L. S., & Rice, L. N. (1997), Humanistic approaches to psychotherapy. In P. L. Wachtel & S. B. Messer (Eds.), Theories of psychotherapy: Origins and evolution (p. 97–129). (Reprinted in modifiedform from D. K. Freedheim (Ed.), «History of Psychotherapy: A Century of Change,» Washington, DC: American Psychological Assn, 1992, pp. 197–224) American Psychological Association. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/10239-003 .

[91] McLeod, J. (2003), The humanistic paradigm. Handbook of counselling psychology, 140-160.

[92] Rogers, C. (1959), A Theory of Therapy, Personality and Interpersonal Relationships as Developed in the Client-centered Framework. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A Study of a Science. Vol. 3: Formulations of the Person and the Social Context. New York: McGraw Hill.

[93] Schneider, K. J., Pierson, J. F., & Bugental, J. F. (Eds.). (2014), The handbook of humanistic psychology: Theory, research, and practice. Sage Publications.

[94] Borum, R. (2011), Radicalisation into violent extremism II: a review of conceptual models and empirical research. Journal of Strategic Security, 4(4), 37-62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.4.4.2.

[95] Pressman, D. E., & Flockton, J. (2010), Risk assessment decisions for violent political extremism. Consultative Version 2. Unpublished manuscript.

[96] Silke, A. (2008), Holy warriors. European Journal of Criminology, 5(1), 99-123. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370807084226.

[97] Aspinall, E. (2014), Health care and democratization in Indonesia. Democratization, 21(5), 803-823.

[98] Hanandita, W., & Tampubolon, G. (2015), The double burden of malnutrition in Indonesia: Social determinants and geographical variations. SSM-population health, 1, 16-25.

[99] International Labour Organization. (2003), Restructuring of the social security system (Part 4): The Feasibility of Introducing an Unemployment Insurance Benefit in Indonesia. Geneva: Author.

[100] Leigh, A., & Van der Eng, P. (2009), Inequality in Indonesia: What can we learn from top incomes? Journal of public economics, 93(1-2), 209- 212.

[101] Measey, M. (2010), Indonesia: a vulnerable country in the face of climate change. Global Majority E-Journal, 1(1), 31-45.

Downloads

How to Cite

Sukabdi, Z. A. (2021). Psychological Risk Factors of Terrorist Offenders in Indonesia. Journal of Psychological Research, 3(4), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.30564/jpr.v3i4.3748

Issue

Vol. 3 , Iss. 4 (October 2021)

Article Type

Article

License

Copyright © 2021 Zora A. Sukabdi

Creative Commons License

This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.

Crossref
Scopus
Google Scholar
Europe PMC